Second-line systemic therapy in metastatic renal-cell carcinoma: A review☆

Abstract Treatment in metastatic renal-cell carcinoma (mRCC) has evolved tremendously in the last decade. The development of newer targeted agents, like vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors and immunotherapy have changed the treatment paradigm in mRCC patients. Axitinib and everolimus have been used extensively in patients who progressed on prior antiangiogenic therapy. The newer agents including nivolumab, cabozantinib, and lenvatinib in combination with everolimus have all demonstrated overall survival benefit over everolimus. However, with multiple treatment options, optimal choice and sequencing becomes challenging. This article provides an overview of different therapeutic options available as second-line treatment in patients with mRCC along with future directions.