Modular exponentiation

Modular exponentiation is a type of exponentiation performed over a modulus. It is useful in computer science, especially in the field of public-key cryptography. Modular exponentiation is a type of exponentiation performed over a modulus. It is useful in computer science, especially in the field of public-key cryptography. The operation of modular exponentiation calculates the remainder when an integer b (the base) raised to the eth power (the exponent), be, is divided by a positive integer m (the modulus). In symbols, given base b, exponent e, and modulus m, the modular exponentiation c is: c = be mod m. From the definition of c, it follows that 0 ≤ c < m. For example, given b = 5, e = 3 and m = 13, the solution c = 8 is the remainder of dividing 53 = 125 by 13. Modular exponentiation can be performed with a negative exponent e by finding the modular multiplicative inverse d of b modulo m using the extended Euclidean algorithm. That is: Modular exponentiation similar to the one described above is considered easy to compute, even when the integers involved are enormous. On the other hand, computing the modular discrete logarithm – that is, the task of finding the exponent e when given b, c, and m – is believed to be difficult. This one-way function behavior makes modular exponentiation a candidate for use in cryptographic algorithms. The most direct method of calculating a modular exponent is to calculate be directly, then to take this number modulo m. Consider trying to compute c, given b = 4, e = 13, and m = 497: One could use a calculator to compute 413; this comes out to 67,108,864. Taking this value modulo 497, the answer c is determined to be 445. Note that b is only one digit in length and that e is only two digits in length, but the value be is 8 digits in length. In strong cryptography, b is often at least 1024 bits. Consider b = 5 × 1076 and e = 17, both of which are perfectly reasonable values. In this example, b is 77 digits in length and e is 2 digits in length, but the value be is 1,304 decimal digits in length. Such calculations are possible on modern computers, but the sheer magnitude of such numbers causes the speed of calculations to slow considerably. As b and e increase even further to provide better security, the value be becomes unwieldy.