Vacuum state

In quantum field theory, the quantum vacuum state (also called the quantum vacuum or vacuum state) is the quantum state with the lowest possible energy. Generally, it contains no physical particles. Zero-point field is sometimes used as a synonym for the vacuum state of an individual quantized field.It is impossible by any procedure, no matter how idealized, to reduce any assembly to the absolute zero in a finite number of operations. (See also.)The basic idea here will be that the Casimir force may be derived from the source fields alone even in completely conventional QED, ... Milonni provides detailed argument that the measurable physical effects usually attributed to the vacuum electromagnetic field cannot be explained by that field alone, but require in addition a contribution from the self-energy of the electrons, or their radiation reaction. He writes: 'The radiation reaction and the vacuum fields are two aspects of the same thing when it comes to physical interpretations of various QED processes including the Lamb shift, van der Waals forces, and Casimir effects. In quantum field theory, the quantum vacuum state (also called the quantum vacuum or vacuum state) is the quantum state with the lowest possible energy. Generally, it contains no physical particles. Zero-point field is sometimes used as a synonym for the vacuum state of an individual quantized field. According to present-day understanding of what is called the vacuum state or the quantum vacuum, it is 'by no means a simple empty space'. According to quantum mechanics, the vacuum state is not truly empty but instead contains fleeting electromagnetic waves and particles that pop into and out of existence. The QED vacuum of quantum electrodynamics (or QED) was the first vacuum of quantum field theory to be developed. QED originated in the 1930s, and in the late 1940s and early 1950s it was reformulated by Feynman, Tomonaga and Schwinger, who jointly received the Nobel prize for this work in 1965. Today the electromagnetic interactions and the weak interactions are unified in the theory of the electroweak interaction. The Standard Model is a generalization of the QED work to include all the known elementary particles and their interactions (except gravity). Quantum chromodynamics is the portion of the Standard Model that deals with strong interactions, and QCD vacuum is the vacuum of quantum chromodynamics. It is the object of study in the Large Hadron Collider and the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, and is related to the so-called vacuum structure of strong interactions. If the quantum field theory can be accurately described through perturbation theory, then the properties of the vacuum are analogous to the properties of the ground state of a quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator, or more accurately, the ground state of a measurement problem. In this case the vacuum expectation value (VEV) of any field operator vanishes. For quantum field theories in which perturbation theory breaks down at low energies (for example, Quantum chromodynamics or the BCS theory of superconductivity) field operators may have non-vanishing vacuum expectation values called condensates. In the Standard Model, the non-zero vacuum expectation value of the Higgs field, arising from spontaneous symmetry breaking, is the mechanism by which the other fields in the theory acquire mass. In many situations, the vacuum state can be defined to have zero energy, although the actual situation is considerably more subtle. The vacuum state is associated with a zero-point energy, and this zero-point energy has measurable effects. In the laboratory, it may be detected as the Casimir effect. In physical cosmology, the energy of the cosmological vacuum appears as the cosmological constant. In fact, the energy of a cubic centimeter of empty space has been calculated figuratively to be one trillionth of an erg (or 0.6 eV). An outstanding requirement imposed on a potential Theory of Everything is that the energy of the quantum vacuum state must explain the physically observed cosmological constant. For a relativistic field theory, the vacuum is Poincaré invariant, which follows fromWightman axioms but can be also proved directly without these axioms. Poincaré invariance implies that only scalar combinations of field operators have non-vanishing VEV's. The VEV may break some of the internal symmetries of the Lagrangian of the field theory. In this case the vacuum has less symmetry than the theory allows, and one says that spontaneous symmetry breaking has occurred. See Higgs mechanism, standard model. Quantum corrections to Maxwell's equations are expected to result in a tiny nonlinear electric polarization term in the vacuum, resulting in a field-dependent electrical permittivity ε deviating from the nominal value ε0 of vacuum permittivity. These theoretical developments are described, for example, in Dittrich and Gies.The theory of quantum electrodynamics predicts that the QED vacuum should exhibit a slight nonlinearity so that in the presence of a very strong electric field, the permitivity is increased by a tiny amount with respect to ε0. What's more, and what would be easier to observe (but still very difficult!), is that a strong electric field would modify the effective permeability of free space, becoming anisotropic with a value slightly below μ0 in the direction of the electric field and slightly exceeding μ0 in the perpendicular direction, thereby exhibiting birefringence for an electromagnetic wave travelling in a direction other than that of the electric field. The effect is similar to the Kerr effect but without matter being present. This tiny nonlinearity can be interpreted in terms of virtual pair production The required electric field is predicted to be enormous, about 1.32 × 10 18 {displaystyle 1.32 imes 10^{18}} V/m, known as the Schwinger limit; the equivalent Kerr constant has been estimated, being about 1020 times smaller than the Kerr constant of water. Explanations for dichroism from particle physics, outside quantum electrodynamics, also have been proposed. Experimentally measuring such an effect is very difficult, and has not yet been successful. The presence of virtual particles can be rigorously based upon the non-commutation of the quantized electromagnetic fields. Non-commutation means that although the average values of the fields vanish in a quantum vacuum, their variances do not. The term 'vacuum fluctuations' refers to the variance of the field strength in the minimal energy state, and is described picturesquely as evidence of 'virtual particles'. It is sometimes attempted to provide an intuitive picture of virtual particles, or variances, based upon the Heisenberg energy-time uncertainty principle: