Covariance and contravariance of vectors

In multilinear algebra and tensor analysis, covariance and contravariance describe how the quantitative description of certain geometric or physical entities changes with a change of basis. In physics, a basis is sometimes thought of as a set of reference axes. A change of scale on the reference axes corresponds to a change of units in the problem. For instance, by changing scale from meters to centimeters (that is, dividing the scale of the reference axes by 100), the components of a measured velocity vector are multiplied by 100. Vectors exhibit this behavior of changing scale inversely to changes in scale to the reference axes and consequently are called contravariant. As a result, vectors often have units of distance or distance with other units (as, for example, velocity has units of distance divided by time). In contrast, covectors (also called dual vectors) typically have units of the inverse of distance or the inverse of distance with other units. An example of a covector is the gradient, which has units of a spatial derivative, or distance−1. The components of covectors change in the same way as changes to scale of the reference axes and consequently are called covariant. A third concept related to covariance and contravariance is invariance. An example of a physical observable that does not change with a change of scale on the reference axes is the mass of a particle, which has units of mass (that is, no units of distance). The single, scalar value of mass is independent of changes to the scale of the reference axes and consequently is called invariant.