Polyphyly

A polyphyletic group is a set of organisms, or other evolving elements, that have been grouped together but do not share an immediate common ancestor. The term is often applied to groups that share characteristics that appear to be similar but have not been inherited from common ancestors; these characteristics are known as homoplasies, and the development and phenomenon of homoplasies is known as convergent evolution. The arrangement of the members of a polyphyletic group is called a polyphyly. A polyphyletic group is a set of organisms, or other evolving elements, that have been grouped together but do not share an immediate common ancestor. The term is often applied to groups that share characteristics that appear to be similar but have not been inherited from common ancestors; these characteristics are known as homoplasies, and the development and phenomenon of homoplasies is known as convergent evolution. The arrangement of the members of a polyphyletic group is called a polyphyly. Alternatively, polyphyletic is simply used to describe a group whose members come from multiple ancestral sources, regardless of similarity of characteristics. For example, the biological characteristic of warm-bloodedness evolved separately in the ancestors of mammals and the ancestors of birds. Other polyphyletic groups are for example algae, C4 photosynthetic plants, and edentates. Many biologists aim to avoid homoplasies in grouping taxa together and therefore it is frequently a goal to eliminate groups that are found to be polyphyletic. This is often the stimulus for major revisions of the classification schemes. Researchers concerned more with ecology than with systematics may take polyphyletic groups as legitimate subject matter; the similarities in activity within the fungus group Alternaria, for example, can lead researchers to regard the group as a valid genus while acknowledging its polyphyly.. In recent research, the concepts of monophyly, paraphyly, and polyphyly have been used in deducing key genes for barcoding of diverse group of species. The term polyphyly, or polyphyletic, derives from the two ancient greek words πολύς (polús), meaning 'many, a lot of', and φῦλον (phûlon), meaning 'genus, species', and refers to the fact that a polyphyletic group includes organisms (e.g., genera, species) arising from multiple ancestral sources. Conversely, the term monophyly, or monophyletic, builds on the ancient greek prefix μόνος (mónos), meaning 'alone, only, unique', and refers to the fact that a monophyletic group includes organisms consisting of all the descendants of a unique common ancestor. By comparison, the term paraphyly, or paraphyletic, uses the ancient greek prefix παρά (pará), meaning 'beside, near', and refers to the situation in which one or several monophyletic subgroups are left apart from all other descendants of a unique common ancestor. In many schools of taxonomy, the existence of polyphyletic groups in a classification is discouraged. Monophyletic groups (that is, clades) are considered by these schools of thought to be the most important grouping of organisms. One reason for this view is that some clades are simple to define in purely phylogenetic terms without reference to clades previously introduced: a node-based clade definition, for example, could be 'All descendants of the last common ancestor of species X and Y'. On the other hand, polyphyletic groups can often be delimited in terms of clades, for example 'the flying vertebrates consist of the bat, bird, and pterosaur clades'. Because polyphyletic groups can frequently be defined as a sum of clades, they are usually considered less fundamental than monophyletic (single, whole) clades.