Voltage-sensitive dye

Voltage-sensitive dyes, also known as potentiometric dyes, are dyes which change their spectral properties in response to voltage changes. They are able to provide linear measurements of firing activity of single neurons, large neuronal populations or activity of myocytes. Many physiological processes are accompanied by changes in cell membrane potential which can be detected with voltage sensitive dyes. Measurements may indicate the site of action potential origin, and measurements of action potential velocity and direction may be obtained. Voltage-sensitive dyes, also known as potentiometric dyes, are dyes which change their spectral properties in response to voltage changes. They are able to provide linear measurements of firing activity of single neurons, large neuronal populations or activity of myocytes. Many physiological processes are accompanied by changes in cell membrane potential which can be detected with voltage sensitive dyes. Measurements may indicate the site of action potential origin, and measurements of action potential velocity and direction may be obtained. Potentiometric dyes are used to monitor the electrical activity inside cell organelles where it is not possible to insert an electrode, such as the mitochondria and Dendritic spine. This technology is especially powerful for the study of patterns ofactivity in complex multicellular preparations. It also makes possible themeasurement of spatial and temporal variations in membrane potential along thesurface of single cells. Fast-response probes: These are amphiphilic membrane staining dyes which usually have a pair ofhydrocarbon chains acting as membrane anchors and a hydrophilic group which aligns the chromophoreperpendicular to the membrane/aqueous interface. The chromophore is believed to undergo a largeelectronic charge shift as a result of excitation from the ground to the excited state and this underlies theputative electrochromic mechanism for the sensitivity of these dyes to membrane potential. This molecule (dye) intercalates among the lipophilic part of biological membranes. This orientation assures that the excitation inducedcharge redistribution will occur parallel to the electric field within the membrane. A change in thevoltage across the membrane will therefore cause a spectral shift resulting from a direct interactionbetween the field and the ground and excited state dipole moments. New voltage dyes can sense voltage with high speed and sensitivity using photoinduced electron transfer (PeT) through a conjugated molecular wire. Slow-response probes: These exhibit potential-dependent changes in their transmembrane distribution which are accompanied by a fluoresence change. Typical slow-response probes include cationic carbocyanines and rhodamines, and ionic oxonols. Commonly used voltage sensitive dyes are substituted aminonaphthylethenylpyridinium (ANEP) dyes, such as di-4-ANEPPS, di-8-ANEPPS, and RH237. Depending on their chemical modifications which change their physical properties they are used for different experimental procedures. They were first described in 1985 by the research group of Leslie Loew. ANNINE-6plus is the latest voltage sensitive dye with fast response (ns response time) and high voltage sensitivity. It has been applied to measure the action potentials of a single t-tubule of cardiomyocytes by Guixue Bu et al. A recent computational study confirmed that the ANEP dyes are affected only by the electrostatic environment and not by specific molecular interactions. The core material for imaging brain activity with voltage-sensitive dyes are the dyes themselves. These voltage-sensitive dyes are lipophilic and preferably localized in membranes with their hydrophobic tails. They are used in applications involving fluorescence or absorption; they are fast acting and are able to provide linear measurements of changes in membrane potential. A variety of specialized equipment may be used in conjunction with the dyes, and choices in equipment will vary according to the particularities of a preparation. Essentially, equipment will include specialized microscopes and imaging devices, and may include technical lamps or lasers.