Inaugural dissertation

A doctorate (from Latin docere, 'to teach') or doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, 'teacher') or doctoral degree, is an academic degree awarded by universities, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ('licence to teach'). In most countries, it is a research degree that qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field, or to work in a specific profession. There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines.Doctoral degrees are awarded to students who have demonstrated:an award that is at a level above the PhD (or equivalent professional doctorate in the discipline), and that is typically gained not through a defined programme of study but rather by submission of a substantial body of research-based work. A doctorate (from Latin docere, 'to teach') or doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, 'teacher') or doctoral degree, is an academic degree awarded by universities, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ('licence to teach'). In most countries, it is a research degree that qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field, or to work in a specific profession. There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines. In the United States and some other countries, there are also some types of vocational, technical, or professional degrees that include doctor in their name and are, in some of those countries, classified as doctorates. Professional doctorates historically came about to meet the needs of practitioners in a variety of disciplines. However, the necessity of these degrees may vary greatly across disciplines, making their significance unclear. Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society. The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning 'teacher' or 'instructor'. The doctorate (Latin: doctoratus) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin (licentia docendi) at a university. Its roots can be traced to the early church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers, and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible. The right to grant a licentia docendi (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the Catholic church, which required the applicant to pass a test, to take an oath of allegiance and to pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time largely free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude. This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, which were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. In 1213 the right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris, where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubiquie docendi). However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (baccalaureus), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (magister) and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications. According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris. George Makdisi has suggested that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was a direct precursor to the doctorate later issued in medieval universities, though Toby Huff has argued that Makdisi's theory is unsubstantiated. The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c. 1652). The term 'philosophy' does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is 'love of wisdom'. In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/natural sciences) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the 'faculty of philosophy'. The doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the doctorate of philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, abbreviated as Dr. phil. (similar to Ph.D. in Anglo-American countries). Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. nat., and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. pol., similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr. med.) and law (Dr. jur.). University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of 'Masters of Arts' was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms 'master' and 'doctor' were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree. University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in 1608 at Lyons, Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678 at the University of Padua, Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University, Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at Complutense University, Madrid.