Populism

Populism refers to a range of political stances that emphasise the idea of 'the people' and often juxtapose this group against 'the elite'. The term developed in the 19th century and has been applied to various politicians, parties, and movements since that time, although has rarely been chosen as a self-description. Within political science and other social sciences, several different definitions of populism have been employed, with some scholars proposing that the term be rejected altogether. A common framework for interpreting populism is known as the ideational approach: this defines populism as an ideology which presents 'the people' as a morally good force and contrasts them against 'the elite', who are portrayed as corrupt and self-serving. Populists differ in how 'the people' are defined, but it can be based along class, ethnic, or national lines. Populists typically present 'the elite' as comprising the political, economic, cultural, and media establishment, depicted as a homogeneous entity and accused of placing their own interests, and often the interests of other groups—such as large corporations, foreign countries, or immigrants—above the interests of 'the people'. Populist parties and social movements are often led by charismatic or dominant figures who present themselves as the 'voice of the people'. According to the ideational approach, populism is often combined with other ideologies, such as nationalism, liberalism, or socialism. Thus, populists can be found at different locations along the left–right political spectrum and there exists both left-wing populism and right-wing populism. Other scholars of the social sciences have defined the term populism differently. According to the popular agency definition used by some historians of United States history, populism refers to popular engagement of the population in political decision making. An approach associated with the political scientist Ernesto Laclau presents populism as an emancipatory social force through which marginalised groups challenge dominant power structures. Some economists have used the term in reference to governments which engage in substantial public spending financed by foreign loans, resulting in hyperinflation and emergency measures. In popular discourse—where the term has often been used pejoratively—it has sometimes been used synonymously with demagogy, to describe politicians who present overly simplistic answers to complex questions in a highly emotional manner, or with opportunism, to characterise politicians who seek to please voters without rational consideration as to the best course of action. The term populism came into use in the late 19th century alongside the promotion of democracy. In the United States, it was closely associated with the People's Party, while in the Russian Empire it was linked to the agrarian socialist Narodnik movement. In the 1960s the term became increasingly popular among social scientists in Western countries, and later in the 20th century it was applied to various political parties active in liberal democracies. In the 21st century, the term became increasingly common in political discourse, particularly in the Americas and Europe, to describe a range of left-wing, right-wing, and centrist groups that challenged the established parties. When in office in liberal democracies, populists have often been responsible for democratic backsliding – also called 'democratic erosion' or 'de-democratization' – as they undermine independent institutions like the media or judiciary which they consider hostile to the 'will of the people'. The word populism is a vague and contested term that has been used in reference to a diverse variety of phenomena. The political scientist Will Brett characterised it as 'a classic example of a stretched concept, pulled out of shape by overuse and misuse'. The term originated as a form of self-designation, being used by members of the People's Party active in the United States during the late 19th century. In the Russian Empire during the same period, a group referred to itself as the narodniki, which has often been translated into English as populists. The Russian and American movements differed in various respects, and the fact that they shared a name was coincidental. In the 1920s, the term entered the French language, used to describe a group of writers expressing sympathy for ordinary people. Although the term began as a self-designation, part of the confusion surrounding it stems from the fact that it has rarely been used in this way, with few political figures openly describing themselves as 'populists'. As noted by the political scientist Margaret Canovan, 'there has been no self-conscious international populist movement which might have attempted to control or limit the term's reference, and as a result those who have used it have been able to attach it a wide variety of meanings.' In this it differs from other political terms, like 'socialism' or 'conservatism', which have been widely used as self-designations by individuals who have then presented their own, internal definitions of the word. Instead it shares similarities with terms like 'far left', 'far right', or 'extremist', which are often used in political discourse but rarely as self-designations. In popular discourse, the term 'populism' has often been conflated with other concepts like demagoguery and generally presented as something to be 'feared and discredited'. It has often been applied to movements that are considered to be outside the political mainstream or a threat to democracy. Typically, the term is usually used against others, often in a pejorative sense to discredit opponents. Some of those who have repeatedly been referred to as 'populists' in a pejorative sense have subsequently embraced the term while seeking to shed it of negative connotations. The French far-right politician Jean-Marie Le Pen for instance was often accused of populism and eventually responded by stating that 'Populism precisely is taking into account the people's opinion. Have people the right, in a democracy, to hold an opinion? If that is the case, then yes, I am a populist.' Similarly, on being founded in 2003, the centre-left Lithuanian Labour Party declared: 'we are and will be called populists.'