The modulus of elasticity (MOE) of structurally graded one-inch-thick red oak (Quercus rubra) and red maple (Acer rubrum) lumber was measured in this work. The center-point, third-point static loading tests, and the stress wave timer methods were used. The objective was to determine if there are statistical differences between three structural lumber grades based on their MOE values. The study considered both the within separated grades and the across combined grades. For red oak and red maple, significant differences in MOE values from center-point static loading tests were observed solely between Select Structural and Below-grade lumber. With the dynamic method, no significant differences were found between any visual grades, including Below-grade lumber. Regardless of the MOE determination method used, the MOE value was not useful for distinguishing the structural, No. 2, and No. 3 visual grades. The strongest correlation existed between the global MOE and the dynamic MOE, which was even higher when the analyses were conducted on separated visual grades. In the case of red maple, stronger correlations between the dynamic MOE, local MOE, and global MOE were observed when separated by visual classes, compared to the analysis conducted on the combined grades. The global MOE was found to be a better predictor of the local MOE than the dynamic MOE.
Abstract The interest in softwood-based cross-laminated timber (CLT) production has in turn generated a great deal of interest in producing CLT from hardwood species. This prospect of a new market for hardwood lumber is a significant driver behind efforts to gain certification of hardwoods within American Panel Association (APA) PRG 320, Standard for Performance-Rated Cross-Laminated Timber. However, a number of challenges present significant hurdles for gaining acceptance of hardwoods in CLT manufacturing. These include differences in how softwoods and hardwoods are produced and marketed (e.g., structural lumber markets [softwoods] vs. appearance-grade markets [hardwoods]), lumber grading differences, available sizes of hardwood lumber, drying differences between hardwoods and softwoods, and gluing particularities with hardwoods. This paper identifies the various issues involved with introducing hardwoods into a softwood-dominated market and what it will take to be competitive within the overall CLT market.
A mixed integer programming model was developed to estimate the delivered cost of woody biomass under different woody biomass handling systems. The objective of the model was to optimize a woody biomass based biofuel facilitys location while minimizing the total annual delivered cost of woody biomass under resource and operational constraints. The model was applied in the state of West Virginia. Results showed that the optimal location for a 900 tonnes of dry woody biomass plant would be at Addison or Grantsville in West Virginia, depending on the system used. For that base-case scenario, the average delivered cost varied from $2.30/GJ to $3.02/GJ among the systems. Sensitivity analysis was performed under different scenarios, including biomass availability and purchasestumpage price, demand, extraction distance, and fuel pricing. The delivered cost was mostly affected by woody biomass demand at the plant. Skidding distance had the least impact on the delivered cost. The results would be useful in facilitating the research and economic development of woody biomass utilization for bioenergy in the region.
Liquid fuels from coal and biomass have the potential to reduce petroleum fuel use and CO2 emission in the U.S. transportation sector. A multi-equation model was developed to assess the economics of a coal/biomass-to-liquids (CBTL) fuel plant in the central Appalachian region. Specifically, the objective was to minimize the total annual cost subject to a series of regional supply, demand, and other constraints. The model was developed and solved using General Algebraic Modeling System/Cplex solver. Model inputs include coal and biomass availability, biomass handling system type, plant investment, production capacity, transportation logistics, and project financing; while outputs include the optimal logistical decision-making together with feedstock requirement, collection, delivery, and liquid fuel production. The results indicated that the required selling price (RSP) of Fischer-Tropsch (FT) diesel for a 40,000 barrel-per-day CBTL plant with coal/biomass ratio of 85/15 varied between $79.00 bbl-1 and $79.35 bbl-1 using different biomass handling systems. The RSP of FT diesel heavily depended upon plant capacity, capital cost, coal price, and liquid fuel yield. Our findings can help decision-makers evaluate future CBTL development in central Appalachia.
Abstract West Virginia's forest products industry (FPI) has long been viewed as an important industry to the state. However, there is a lack of recent data regarding the economic contribution of the industry to the state's economy. The housing market collapse of the mid-2000s, subsequent recession, continued increasing global competition, natural gas boom, and other macroeconomic trends have affected the FPI in the state. The continuing evolution of the state economy necessitates a reexamination of the role the FPI plays in the state. Thus, this article examines the historical contribution of the FPI to West Virginia's economy using 2006, 2010, 2015, and 2017 data. Both the direct and total economic contributions of the industry substantially declined from 2006 to 2010. The largest declines were experienced in the secondary solid-wood products and wood furniture sectors. Between 2010 and 2015, the industry's direct and total contributions rose for all measures evaluated. Between 2015 and 2017, all measures of direct and total contributions of the industry also increased but at a much slower pace and remained lower than 2006 levels. The inability of the FPI in the state to return to 2006 levels of direct contributions suggests that long-term industry trends such as the continued offshoring of value-added forest products sectors and increased industry automation are still putting negative pressure on direct industry growth. Additionally, the industry is facing new challenges such as uncertainty about the future availability of the foreign markets and competition for resources from emerging industries.
Abstract West Virginia’s forest products industry’s (FPI) contributions to the state’s economy have historically been influenced by factors such as increasing global competition, increasing automation, recessions, the shale gas boom, and more recently, the COVID-19 pandemic. However, there are limited data regarding the impact of the pandemic on the industry and state economy. Given its importance to the state economy, it is therefore important to examine the effect of the pandemic on the industry and the state economy and its recovery postpandemic. This study quantifies the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on West Virginia’s FPI from 2019 through 2022, highlighting significant recovery postpandemic. As expected, during the peak of the pandemic spanning the periods of 2019 and 2020 marked a decline in the West Virginia FPI performance across all measures of economic contributions. However, the magnitude and length of the adverse impact is not as significant as the impact of the Great Recession. The forestry sector experienced the largest decline in terms of direct and total economic contributions while the furniture sector remained relatively resilient. By 2021, the industry already experienced recovery which continued through 2022. In fact, 2022 levels were higher than the prepandemic levels except for employment and direct employee compensation. In general, most sectors of the industry have shown recovery and are even performing better than before the pandemic, except for the logging sector. The West Virginia FPI has proven its resiliency during the pandemic and capitalized on opportunities to respond to the changing demand for forest products.
The densification of yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) has emerged as a critical area of research, driven by its desirable properties and broad potential applications. This study investigated the effects of four densification parameters using a 24 full factorial design to evaluate their impact on physical and mechanical properties. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pareto analyses identified the compression ratio as the most influential factor, significantly affecting bending strength, compression strength, hardness, and spring-back behavior. Pressing temperature was the second most significant factor, with higher levels positively impacting mechanical properties. However, increasing the pre-steaming treatment duration from 30 to 60 min at 130 °C had a detrimental effect on strength and spring-back performance, particularly at a 50% compression ratio. Pressing time showed no significant effect on strength properties but contributed positively to hardness and spring-back behavior at higher levels. Several significant factor interactions were observed, further influencing the outcomes. Differences in density profiles were notable across compression ratios, with higher ratios producing more uniform distributions. Under optimal parameters, densification increased compression strength by 117%, bending strength by 60%, and hardness by 154% compared to undensified control samples, demonstrating the potential of densified yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) for high-performance applications.
Abstract The use of a harvester-forwarder system for commercial thinning operations in a Douglas-fir plantation had little detrimental impact on the residual stand. Less than five percent of the sample trees in the residual stand exhibited damage from the thinning operation. Trails occupied less than 20 percent of the harvested area with significant portions of the developed trail, over 13 percent of the harvested area, in lightly disturbed harvester trails. Trail spacing was consistent and averaged 26 metres between trails for the area studied. Changes in bulk density were greater for harvester trails, increasing an average of 25 percent in the first 10 centimetres of soil depth. Bulk densities on forwarder trails averaged 20 percent greater than measurements on adjacent control sites for the first 10 centimetres of soil depth. These bulk density values, when compared against magnitudes from the literature, suggest that little site damage was caused by thinning operations with this system.
Abstract Use of feller-buncher and directional shears has increased the productivity and efficiency of many logging operations in the South. When felling sawlog and chip'n' saw-sized timber, hydraulic shears can damage the butt portion of the tree. Butt logs of trees felled with shears are subjectto damage in the form of ring-shake, stump-pull, shatter, and splitting (Porter et al. 1984). Logging equipment manufacturers have attempted to minimize shear-related damage through different felling head designs. Various designs have included ribbed blades, angled shear patterns, curved blades,modified blade angles, and modified shear speeds. Whereas a number of studies addressed the effect of a specific design on shear-related damage (Guimier 1981, Forrester 1980, Redman 1979, McLaucalan and Kusec 1974, Letkeman 1973, Johnson and St. Laurent 1970, McIntosh and Kerbes 1968), fewhave compared designs to determine the relative advantage of one over another in reducing shear-related damage. This paper presents the results of a recent study comparing six feller-buncher and directional shear head designs to determine their relative abilities in reducing shear-relateddamage. The study also details a quick and inexpensive method of quantifying shear-related damage in butt logs. South. J. Appl. For. 11(1):3-6.
