We have suggested two empirical nitrogen equivalent equations for predicting the detonation velocity ( D ) and detonation pressure ( p ) of CHNO explosives with more approaching the results of Kamlet-Jacobs equations than common used nitrogen equivalent equations
Lining cracking is a typical damage phenomenon during the construction of metro tunnels, especially in the mixed strata with soft upper and lower hard rock, which severely affects the safety of the tunnel. The physical model test was carried out in this paper to investigate the mechanical responses of the soil and tunnel lining under different buried depths. Moreover, the failure evolution process of tunnel lining was recorded, and its failure mechanism was analyzed. The effectiveness of the model test was verified by numerical simulation. Meanwhile, the influences of the soil elastic modulus and tunnel diameter on the damage behaviors of the lining were systematically discussed. The test results indicated a slight profound soil disturbance induced by tunnel excavation. The soil displacements increased with the depth decrease, and the settlement in the soil middle was higher than on both sides. The stress reduction was faster in the vertical direction compared with the horizontal direction. For tunnel lining, it was always in a state of coupling effect of bending moment and axial compression in the circumferential direction. The damage of tunnel invert was the most serious, and the pressure exerted on the lining was asymmetrical. In addition, the numerical results show that the tunnel crown had the most considerable convergence deformation, and the invert was always in a state of the most significant stress concentration and the highest tensile stress.
Abstract The effects of resonant magnetic perturbation (RMP) fields on peeling–ballooning (P–B) modes are studied with the experimental equilibria of EAST based on the four-field model in BOUT++ code. As the two basic types of plasma responses, the magnetic and the transport response to RMP are considered in our simulation to reveal the roles of the plasma response during edge localized mode mitigation. On the one hand, the results show that RMP can reduce the linear growth rates of the P–B modes and the pedestal energy loss in the nonlinear process by directly coupling with the P–B modes. The magnetic response can weaken the impacts of RMPs on the P–B modes by partially screening the applied RMP fields more precisely the resonant components. On the other hand, RMP can further reduce the linear growth rates of the P–B modes and the pedestal energy loss by changing the equilibrium pressure profiles through the transport response. More detailed analysis suggests that, compared with other resonant components of RMPs, the components whose corresponding rational surfaces are located at the top of the pedestal can lead to stronger reductions in the linear growth rates of the P–B modes, and can reduce pedestal energy loss more significantly by enhancing multi-mode coupling in the nonlinear process. Finally, the multi-mode coupling increases with the strength of the resonant components, so one can change the RMP poloidal spectrum by adjusting the phase difference Δϕ between the upper and low RMP coils from 0 to 360∘ , and hence obtain the optimal coil phase difference that leads to the strongest reductions in the linear growth rates of the P–B modes and the pedestal energy loss through maximizing the strength of resonant components, especially the resonant components whose corresponding rational surfaces are located at the top of the pedestal.
Abstract Experiments have achieved high confinement discharges in tokamaks with a negative triangularity (NT) plasma shape accompanied by a lower pedestal and smaller and more frequent edge localized modes (ELMs) compared with positive triangularity (PT). Some existing theories emphasize the linear instability variations result from the change of pedestal. However, NT can directly bring significant changes on magnetic field structures which may also influence the instability of ELMs. Based on a series of equilibria constructed with different triangularities and pressure profiles, the influence of NT on peeling-ballooning mode (P–B mode) is investigated. It is found that NT can increase the growth rates of low to intermediate n (toroidal mode number) modes in the linear stage and lead to a larger pedestal collapse in the nonlinear stage if its pressure profile is the same with the PT shape. Further analyses demonstrate that NT enlarges the unfavorable curvature area, which provides stronger driving source and larger unstable region for the instability. Meanwhile, the diamagnetic effect and local magnetic shear helps to stabilize high n modes in the linear phase, and the E × B shearing rate at the top of the pedestal contributes to suppress the transport of turbulence into the plasma core in the nonlinear phase for the NT shape. What’s more, further simulations with different pedestal heights demonstrate that there exists a threshold value of pressure ratio, below which the ELM energy loss in NT shapes can be smaller than that in PT shapes, suggesting that the smaller energy loss with NT in experiment mainly results from the lower pedestal heigh. The results reveal behaviors of P–B modes and provide possible mechanisms for the phenomenon of lower pedestal height with negative triangularities in experiments.
Abstract In order to guarantee the durability and security of electric vehicles (EV), the ageing estimation of lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) is of great practical significance. Lithium inventory is an important indicator for assessing the LIB ageing process. Incremental capacity (IC), particle swarm optimisation (PSO) and support vector machine (SVM) are proposed to estimate the LIBs lithium inventory. Firstly, the IC curve that reflect the electrochemical reaction is analysed, and the middle peak of IC curve that characterises the material phase transition point is selected to represent the LIB lithium inventory. IC curve is smoothed by the Savitzky–Golay method to eliminate noise. Three features of the charging voltage curve are selected as the LIB health feature, and the correlation between three features and the lithium inventory is analysed by using the grey relation analysis method. Then, the mapping relationship between the lithium inventory and three health features is established based on SVM. PSO is used to optimise SVM kernel and penalty parameters to improve the precision of LIBs lithium inventory estimation. Finally, the proposed method is verified by three ageing experiments of LIBs. The results show that the proposed method can precisely estimate the lithium inventory of different LIBs.