In 2017, the Myanmar National Action Plan for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) (2017-2022) was endorsed by the Ministry of Health and Sports, Myanmar; one of its objectives was to increase public awareness of AMR to accelerate appropriate antibiotic use. This survey aimed to assess the public knowledge, practices and awareness concerning antibiotics and AMR awareness among adults in Myanmar. We conducted a nationwide cross-sectional mobile phone panel survey in January and February 2020. Participants were randomly selected from the mobile phone panel in each of three groups stratified by gender, age group, and residential area urbanity; they were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Collected data were weighted based on the population of each stratum from the latest national census and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Two thousand and forty-five adults from 12 regions and states participated in this survey. Overall, 89.5% of participants had heard about antibiotics; however, only 0.9% provided correct answers to all five questions about antibiotics, whereas 9.7% provided all incorrect answers. More than half of participants (58.5%) purchased antibiotics without a prescription, mainly from medical stores or pharmacies (87.9%); this was more frequent in age group (18-29 years) and those in rural areas (p = 0.004 and p < 0.001, respectively). Only 56.3% were aware of antibiotic resistance and received their information from medical professionals (46.3%), family members or friends (38.9%), or the media (26.1%). Less than half (42.4%) knew that antibiotics were used in farm animals. Most did not know that using antibiotics in farm animals could develop resistance (73.2%) and is banned for the purposes of growth stimulation (64.1%). This survey identifies considerable gaps in the knowledge, practices, and awareness about antibiotics among the general population in Myanmar. Continuous public education and awareness campaigns must be urgently conducted to fulfill these gaps, which would aid in promoting antibiotic stewardship, leading to combating AMR in Myanmar.
Until 2005, the quality of rapid diagnostic human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing was not monitored and no regular technical support was provided to hospital laboratories in Myanmar.The national reference laboratory introduced a national external quality assessment scheme. The scheme involved (i) training laboratory technicians in HIV testing and in the requirements of the quality assessment system; (ii) implementing a biannual proficiency panel testing programme; (iii) on-site assessments of poorly-performing laboratories to improve testing procedures; and (iv) development of national guidelines.In 2011, a total of 422 public hospitals in Myanmar had laboratories providing HIV tests. In addition, private laboratories supported by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) conducted HIV testing.The scheme was started in 65 public laboratories in 2005. In 2012, it had expanded nationwide to 347 laboratories, including 33 NGO laboratories. During the expansion of the scheme, laboratory response rates were greater than 90% and the proportion of laboratories reporting at least one aberrant result improved from 9.2% (6/65) in 2005 to 5.4% (17/316) in 2012.National testing guidelines and a reference laboratory are needed to successfully implement quality assurance of HIV testing services. On-site assessments are crucial for all participating laboratories and the only source for insight on the causes of aberrant results; lessons that the reference laboratory can share nationally. Proficiency testing helps laboratory technicians to maintain HIV testing skills by ensuring that they regularly encountered HIV-positive samples.Jusqu'à 2005, la qualité du dépistage du virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) à diagnostic rapide n'était pas surveillée, et aucune assistance technique régulière n'était fournie aux laboratoires hospitaliers du Myanmar.Le laboratoire national de référence a mis en place un système national d'évaluation de la qualité externe. Le système impliquait (i) la formation des techniciens de laboratoire au dépistage du VIH et aux exigences du système d'évaluation de la qualité; (ii) la mise en place d'un programme de contrôle des compétences deux fois par an; (iii) l'évaluation sur site des laboratoires à performance médiocre pour améliorer les procédures de dépistage; et (iv) l'élaboration de directives nationales.En 2011, un total de 422 hôpitaux publics au Myanmar disposaient de laboratoires réalisant des dépistages du VIH. En outre, des laboratoires privés soutenus par des organisations non gouvernementales (ONG) ont également effectué des dépistages du VIH.Le système a été lancé dans 65 laboratoires publics en 2005. En 2012, il a été étendu à l'échelle du pays dans 347 laboratoires, y compris 33 laboratoires gérés par des ONG. Pendant le développement du système, les taux de réponse des laboratoires étaient supérieurs à 90%, et le pourcentage de laboratoire ayant signalé au moins un résultat aberrant s'est amélioré, passant de 9,2% (6/65) en 2005 à 5,4% (17/316) en 2012.Des directives nationales en matière de dépistage et un laboratoire de référence sont nécessaires pour réussir la mise en œuvre de l'assurance qualité des services de dépistage du VIH. Les évaluations sur site sont essentielles pour tous les laboratoires participants et la seule source pour connaître les causes des résultats aberrants. Ce sont des leçons que le laboratoire de référence peut diffuser à l'échelle nationale. Les contrôles de compétence peuvent aider les techniciens de laboratoire à maintenir à niveau leurs compétences en matière de dépistage du VIH en s'assurant qu'ils rencontrent régulièrement des échantillons de VIH séropositifs.Hasta 2005, no se había controlado la calidad de las pruebas de diagnóstico rápido del virus de inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) ni se había proporcionado asistencia técnica constante a los laboratorios de los hospitales en Myanmar.El laboratorio nacional de referencia introdujo un sistema nacional de evaluación externa de la calidad. El plan incluía (i) la capacitación de técnicos de laboratorio en las pruebas del VIH y en los requisitos del sistema de evaluación de la calidad; (ii) la aplicación de un programa bianual de un cuadro de análisis de la competencia; (iii) evaluaciones in situ de los laboratorios con un rendimiento bajo para mejorar los procedimientos de prueba; y (iv) el desarrollo de directrices nacionales.En 2011, un total de 422 hospitales públicos en Myanmar contaban con laboratorios que ofrecían pruebas del VIH. Además, laboratorios privados apoyados por organizaciones no gubernamentales (ONG) también realizaban pruebas del VIH.El plan se inició en 65 laboratorios públicos en 2005. En 2012, se amplió a nivel nacional a 347 laboratorios, de los cuales, 33 eran laboratorios de ONG. Durante la ampliación del plan, las tasas de respuesta de laboratorio fueron superiores al 90% y la proporción de laboratorios que notificaban al menos un resultado aberrante mejoró del 9,2% (6/65) en 2005 al 5,4% (17/316) en 2012.Se necesitan directrices nacionales para la realización de pruebas y un laboratorio de referencia para aplicar con éxito el control de calidad de los servicios de pruebas del VIH. Las evaluaciones in situ son fundamentales para todos los laboratorios participantes y la única fuente para comprender las causas de los resultados anómalos. El laboratorio de referencia puede compartir estas lecciones a nivel nacional. La evaluación de la competencia ayuda a los técnicos de laboratorio a mantener las aptitudes para la realización de las pruebas del VIH, ya que les garantiza encontrar muestras seropositivas.حتى عام 2005، لم يكن هناك رصد لجودة اختبارات فيروس العوز المناعي البشري التشخيصية السريعة ولم يتم تقديم دعم تقني إلى مختبرات المستشفيات في ميانمار.عرض المختبر المرجعي الوطني مخططاً لتقييم الجودة الخارجية على الصعيد الوطني. وتضمن المخطط (1) تدريب فنيي المختبرات على اختبارات فيروس العوز المناعي البشري وعلى متطلبات نظام تقييم الجودة؛ (2) تنفيذ برنامج نصف سنوي لاختبار مستلزمات الكفاءة؛ (3) تقييمات تنفذ في مواقع المختبرات ذات الأداء الضعيف بغية تحسين إجراءات الاختبار؛ (4) وضع دلائل إرشادية وطنية.في عام 2011، كان ما مجموعه 422 مستشفى عمومياً في ميانمار تحتوي على مختبرات تقدم اختبارات فيروس العوز المناعي البشري. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، أجرت مختبرات خاصة تدعمها منظمات غير حكومية اختبارات فيروس العوز المناعي البشري.تم بدء المخطط في 65 مختبراً عمومياً في عام 2005. وفي عام 2012، شهد المخطط توسعاً على الصعيد الوطني ليشمل 347 مختبراً، بما في ذلك مختبرات المنظمات غير الحكومية. وخلال التوسع الذي شهده المخطط، ازدادت معدلات الاستجابة المختبرية عن 90 % وتحسنت نسبة المختبرات التي أبلغت عن نتيجة زائغة واحدة على الأقل من 9.2 % (6/65) في عام 2005 إلى 5.4 % (17/316) في عام 2012.يتعين وجود دلائل إرشادية وطنية لإجراء الاختبارات ومختبر مرجعي بغية تنفيذ ضمان الجودة لخدمات اختبارات فيروس العوز المناعي البشري بشكل ناجح. وتعد التقييمات التي تنفذ في المواقع ذات أهمية حاسمة لدى جميع المختبرات المشاركة وهي المصدر الوحيد للرؤى بشأن أسباب النتائج الزائغة؛ والدروس التي يمكن للمختبر المرجعي تبادلها على الصعيد الوطني. ويساعد اختبار الكفاءة فنيي المختبرات على الاحتفاظ بمهارات اختبارات فيروس العوز المناعي البشري عن طريق ضمان تصديهم للعينات الإيجابية لفيروس العوز المناعي البشري بشكل منتظم.在2005年之前，缅甸快速诊断性艾滋病病毒（HIV）检测质量都未得到监控，医院实验室也没有获得定期技术支持。国家参考实验室引入了国家外部质量评估方案。方案涉及(i) 对实验室技术员进行艾滋病毒检测和质量评估系统要求的培训；(ii) 实施一年两次的熟练度专家组检测计划；(iii) 现场评估绩效不良的实验室以改善检测程序；(iv) 制定全国家导方针。在2011年，缅甸总共有422家公共医院设有提供HIV检测的实验室。此外，非政府组织（NGO）支持的私人实验室也执行HIV检测。2005年，该方案在65个公共实验室启动。在2012年，全国已经有347个实验室实施该方案，包括33个NGO实验室。在方案扩大期间，实验室响应率大于90%，实验室报告至少一例异常结果的比例从2005年的9.2%（6/65）降低至2012年的5.4%（17/316）。成功实施艾滋病毒检测服务的质量保证需要国家检测指导方针和参考实验室。对所有参与实验室提供现场评估至关重要，这也是洞察异常结果原因的唯一措施；参考实验室的经验教训可以在全国分享。熟练度检测有助于实验室技术员通过确保经常接触艾滋病毒阳性样本来保持艾滋病毒检测的技能。До 2005 года в Мьянме не осуществлялся контроль за качеством быстрой диагностики вируса иммунодефицита человека (ВИЧ), а лабораториям больниц не оказывалась регулярная техническая поддержка.Национальная справочная лаборатория внедрила национальную программу внешней оценки качества. Эта программа включала (i) обучение лаборантов тестированию на ВИЧ и требованиям системы оценки качества, (ii) реализацию полугодичной программы проверки квалификации, (iii) оценку на месте неудовлетворительно работающих лабораторий с целью совершенствования процедур тестирования и (iv) разработку национальных руководств.В 2011 году в общей сложности 422 государственные больницы в Мьянме располагали лабораториями, выполняющими тестирование на ВИЧ. Кроме того, тестирование на ВИЧ выполняли частные лаборатории, поддерживаемые неправительственными организациями (НПО).Реализация программы была начата в 65 государственных лабораториях в 2005 году. В 2012 году программа была распространена на всю страну и охватила 347 лабораторий, в том числе 33 лаборатории НПО. Во время расширения программы уровень участия лабораторий превышал 90%, а доля лабораторий, сообщивших по крайней мере об одном аберрантном результате, уменьшилась с 9,2% (6/65) в 2005 году до 5,4% (17/316) в 2012 году.Для успешного обеспечения качества услуг тестирования на ВИЧ требуются национальные рекомендации и наличие справочной лаборатории. Проведение оценок на месте имеет решающее значение для всех участвующих лабораторий и является единственным источником для понимания причин аберрантных результатов. Этими выводами справочная лаборатория может поделиться на национальном уровне. Профессиональное тестирование поможет лаборантам поддерживать свои навыки тестирования на ВИЧ на должном уровне путем регулярного выявления ВИЧ-позитивных образцов.
While Japan's success in achieving universal health insurance over a short period with controlled healthcare costs has been studied from various perspectives, that of beneficiaries have been overlooked. We conducted a secondary analysis of an opinion poll on health insurance in 1967, immediately after reaching universal coverage. We found that people continued to face a slight barrier to healthcare access (26.8% felt medical expenses were a heavy burden) and had high expectations for health insurance (60.5% were satisfied with insured medical services and 82.4% were willing to pay a premium). In our study, younger age, having children before school age, lower living standards, and the health insurance scheme were factors that were associated with a willingness to pay premiums. Involving high-income groups in public insurance is considered to be the key to ensuring universal coverage of social insurance.
Immunization is one of the most effective measures for preventing disease when vaccination coverage is sufficient. Although vaccination coverage is known to be influenced by social and cultural barriers, the determinants of childhood immunization in Myanmar remain poorly understood. This study analyzed factors that influenced complete vaccination status (one dose each for Bacillus Calmette-Guérin and measles and three doses each for diphtheria-pertussis and polio) using 2015 data from the Myanmar Demographic Health and Survey.Data from 12 to 23-month-old children and their mothers were extracted from the nationally representative survey results. Bivariate and multivariate analyses with survey-weighted logistic regression were performed to examine the relationships between vaccination status and various sociodemographic and medical factors. The independent variables for the analyses included area of residence, economic status, maternal age, marital status, education, literacy, employment status, antenatal care attendance, tetanus vaccination, place of delivery, postnatal evaluations, child's sex, number of children, previous child death, decision maker(s) regarding child's health, frequency of healthcare visits, paternal education, and paternal occupation.A representative sample of 904 cases were extracted for the analysis. The overall complete vaccination rate was 55.4%. In the multivariate analysis with backward step-wise selection, complete vaccination was independently associated with middle or high economic status (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 2.64, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.85-3.78), older maternal age (AOR: 2.87, 95% CI: 1.62-5.10), ≥4 antenatal care visits (AOR: 1.87, 95% CI: 1.28-2.73), and maternal tetanus vaccination before delivery (AOR: 3.26, 95% CI: 1.82-5.85).The first Demographic and Health Survey in Myanmar revealed that only approximately one-half of 12-23-year-old children had received complete vaccination, which was lower than the estimated rate from routine administrative coverage. Our results indicate that incomplete immunization status was associated with low economic status, younger maternal age, fewer antenatal care visits, and no maternal tetanus vaccination. These findings may help improve the targeting and strategic implementation of the Expanded Programme on Immunization.
Low objective socioeconomic status (SES) has been correlated with poor physical and mental health among older adults. Some studies suggest that subjective SES is also important for ensuring sound physical and mental health among older adults. However, few studies have been conducted on the impact of both objective and subjective SES on mental health among older adults. This study examines whether objective or subjective SES is associated with depressive symptoms in older adults in Myanmar. This cross-sectional study, conducted between September and December, 2018, used a multistage sampling method to recruit participants from two regions of Myanmar, for face-to-face interviews. The Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) was used to evaluate the depressive symptoms. Participants were classified as having no depressive symptom (GDS score <5) and having depressive symptoms (GDS score ≥5). Objective and subjective SES were assessed using the wealth index and asking participants a multiple-choice question about their current financial situation, respectively. The relationship between objective/subjective SES and depressive symptoms was examined using a multivariable logistic regression analysis. The mean age of the 1,186 participants aged 60 years and above was 69.7 (SD: 7.3), and 706 (59.5%) were female. Among them, 265 (22.3%) had depressive symptoms. After adjusting for objective SES and other covariates, only low subjective SES was positively associated with depressive symptoms (adjusted odds ratio, AOR: 4.18, 95% confidence interval, CI: 2.98–5.87). This association was stronger among participants in the rural areas (urban areas, AOR: 2.10, 95% CI: 1.08–4.05; rural areas, AOR: 5.65, 95% CI: 3.69–8.64). Subjective SES has a stronger association with depressive symptoms than objective SES, among older adults of the two regions in Myanmar, especially in the rural areas. Interventions for depression in older adults should consider regional differences in the context of subjective SES by reducing socioeconomic disparities among the communities.
This study aimed to examine the changes that took place between 2015-2019 and 2020 and reveal how the COVID-19 pandemic affected financial contributions from donors. We used the Creditor Reporting System database of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development to investigate donor disbursement. Focusing on the Group of Seven (G7) countries and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF), we analyzed their development assistance for health (DAH) in 2020 and the change in their disbursement between 2015 and 2020. As a result, total disbursements for all sectors increased by 14% for the G7 and the BMGF. In 2020, there was an increase in DAH for the BMGF and the G7 except for the United States. The total disbursement amount for the "COVID-19" category by G7 countries and the BMGF was approximately USD 3 billion in 2020, which was 3 times larger than for Malaria, 8.5 times larger for Tuberculosis, and 60% smaller for STDs including HIV/AIDS for the same year. In 2020 as well, the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, Italy, and Canada saw their disbursements decline for more than half of 26 sectors. In conclusion, the impact of COVID-19 was observed in the changes in DAH disbursement for three major infectious diseases and other sectors. To consistently address the health needs of low- and middle-income countries, it is important to perform a follow-up analysis of their COVID-19 disbursements and the influence of other DAH areas.
Few studies have examined whether objective or subjective economic status (ES) has a greater association with the happiness of older adults, despite concerns regarding the growing economic cost of morbidity and their functional dependence in developing countries with aging populations. Thus, this study examined whether objective/subjective ES was associated with happiness in older adults in two Myanmar regions. A multistage random sampling procedure and face-to-face interviews were conducted in the urban and rural areas of Myanmar. The happiness of 1200 participants aged >60 years was evaluated using a single happiness score ranging from 0 (very unhappy) to 10 (very happy). The wealth index, used as an objective ES, was calculated from 17 household asset items, such as radio, washing machines, and television. Subjective ES was assessed by asking “Which of the following best describes your current financial situation in light of general economic conditions?” Responses ranged from “very difficult” to “very comfortable”. Both low objective and subjective ES were negatively associated with happiness, after adjusting for confounding variables and stratification by region (urban and rural areas). Although objective and subjective ES had similar associations with happiness in urban areas, subjective ES had a stronger association in rural areas.
Reflecting the experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic, the global response was reviewed by the Independent Review Panel for Pandemic Preparedness and Response. Based on the panel reports, the World Health Organization (WHO) member states decided to establish the intergovernmental negotiating body for drafting a WHO convention, agreement or other international instrument on pandemic prevention, preparedness and response, aiming for approval at the 77
Purpose Myanmar is rapidly ageing. It is important to understand the current condition of older adults in the country. To obtain such information, we conducted home-visit surveys to collect data for evaluating social determinants of health on older adults in Yangon (representative of an urban) and Bago (representative of a rural) regions of Myanmar. Participants Overall, 1200 individuals aged 60 years or older and who were not bedridden or had severe dementia (defined as an Abbreviated Mental Test score ≤6) were recruited from Yangon and Bago in 2018. A population-proportionate random-sampling method was used for recruitment. Findings to date Overall, 600 individuals from Yangon (222 men; 378 women) and 600 from Bago (261 men; 339 women) were surveyed. The average age of Yangon-based men and women was 69.4±7.6 and 69.4±7.3 years; in Bago, this was 69.2±7.1 and 70.6±7.5 years, respectively. Compared to their Yangon-based counterparts, Bago-based respondents showed significantly lower socioeconomic status and more commonly reported poor self-rated health (Bago-based men: 32.2%, women: 42.5%; Yangon: 10.8% and 24.1%, respectively). Meanwhile, some Yangon-based respondents rarely met friends (men: 17.1%, women: 27.8%), and Yangon-based respondents scored higher for instrumental activities of daily living and body mass index when compared to their Bago-based counterparts. For both regions, women showed higher physical-function decline (Yangon-based women: 40.7%, men: 17.1%; Bago: 46.3% and 23.8%, respectively) and cognitive-function decline (Yangon: 34.1% and 10.4%, respectively; Bago: 53.4% and 22.2%, respectively). Being homebound was more common in urban areas (urban-based men: 11.3%, rural-based men: 2.3%; urban-based women: 13.0%, rural-based women: 4.7%, respectively). Future plans A follow-up survey is scheduled for 2021. This will afford longitudinal data collection concerning mortality, becoming bedridden, and developing dementia and long-term care-related diseases. This will allow us to calculate long-term care risks for older adults in Myanmar.
Similar to other countries, coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic significantly impacted not only the ability of midwives to deliver high quality maternal care, but also their ability to access professional development opportunities, including in-service training in Cambodia. In response, we developed a Cambodian version of Safe Delivery App (SDA), aligned to Cambodia's clinical guidelines. The SDA is a free digital job aid and learning platform for skilled birth attendants developed by Maternity Foundation that works offline and is used in more than 40 countries after adapting to the country context. In the year and a half since its launch in June 2021, SDA has become established in Cambodia, with more than 3,000 people, accounting for nearly half the number of midwives in Cambodia, downloading and using it on their devices, and 285 people having completed its self-learning modules. The review of the introduction process revealed that publicity on the professional association's social networking sites, in-person in-depth hands-on training, and troubleshooting in a managed social networking group were useful in promoting the use of the application, and that the Continuing Professional Development Program accreditation has been a strong motivator for completing the self-study program. On the other hand, the COVID-19 pandemic has led to increased use of digital tools, but it is important to prevent the expansion of the digital divide when implementing new digital tools, including SDA.
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