The use of antipsychotic drugs represents an important approach for the treatment of schizophrenia. However, their efficacy is limited to certain symptoms of this disorder, and they induce serious side effects. As a result, there is a strong demand for the development of new drugs, which depends on reliable animal models for pharmacological characterization. The present review discusses the face, construct, and predictive validity of classical animal models for studying the efficacy and side effects of compounds for the treatment of schizophrenia. These models are based on the properties of antipsychotics to impair the conditioned avoidance response and reverse certain behavioral changes induced by psychotomimetic drugs, such as stereotypies, hyperlocomotion, and deficit in prepulse inhibition of the startle response. Other tests, which are not specific to schizophrenia, may predict drug effects on negative and cognitive symptoms, such as deficits in social interaction and memory impairment. Regarding motor side effects, the catalepsy test predicts the liability of a drug to induce Parkinson-like syndrome, whereas vacuous chewing movements predict the liability to induce dyskinesia after chronic treatment. Despite certain limitations, these models may contribute to the development of more safe and efficacious antipsychotic drugs.
Periodontal diseases (PD) are inflammatory conditions that affect the teeth supporting tissues. Increased body fat tissues may contribute to activation of the systemic inflammatory response, leading to comorbidities. Some studies have shown that individuals with obesity present higher incidence of PD than eutrophics.To investigate the impact of obesity on periodontal tissues and oral microbiota in mice.Two obesity mice models were performed, one using 12 weeks of the dietary protocol with a high-fat (HF) diet in C57BL/6 mice and the other using leptin receptor-deficient mice (db/db-/-), which became spontaneously obese. After euthanasia, a DNA-DNA hybridization technique was employed to evaluate the microbiota composition and topical application of chlorhexidine (CHX), an antiseptic, was used to investigate the impact of the oral microbiota on the alveolar bone regarding obesity.Increased adipose tissue may induce alveolar bone loss, neutrophil recruitment, and changes in the oral biofilm, similar to that observed in an experimental model of PD. Topical application of CHX impaired bone changes.Obesity may induce changes in the oral microbiota and neutrophil recruitment, which are associated with alveolar bone loss.
Previous studies have showed that SIN-1, a nitric oxide (NO) donor, injected into the dorsolateral column of the periaqueductal gray (dlPAG) induces flight reactions. This drug, however, can also produce peroxynitrite, which may interfere in this effect. In addition, it is also unknown if this effect is mediated by local activation of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC). The aims of this study, therefore, were (1) to investigate if NOC-9 (6-(2-Hydroxy-1-methyl-2-nitrosohydrazino)-N-methyl-1-hexanamine), a NO donor that does not produce peroxynitrite, would produce flight reactions after intra-dlPAG administration similar to those induced by SIN-1; (2) to verify if these responses could be prevented by local injection of a selective guanylate cyclase inhibitor (ODQ). Male Wistar rats (n=5-12) with cannulae aimed at the dlPAG received injections of TRIS (pH 10.0, 0.5 microl), NOC-9 (75 and 150 nmol), saline or SIN-1 (200 nmol) and were placed in an open arena for 10 min. In a subsequent experiment animals (n=7-8) were pretreated with ODQ (1 nmol/0.5 microl) before receiving NOC-9 150 nmol. NOC-9 induced a significant dose-dependent increase in flight reactions in the first minute after injection (% of animals displaying flight: vehicle=0%, NOC 75=67%, NOC 150=75%). SIN-1 had a similar effect (100% of animals showing flight) but the effects lasted longer (10 min) than those of NOC-9. The effect of NOC-9 (150 nmol) was prevented by pretreatment with ODQ (% of animals displaying flight: vehicle+NOC 150=71%, ODQ+NOC 150=37%). The results suggest that NO donors injected into the dlPAG induce defensive responses that are not mediated by secondary peroxynitrite production. Moreover, they also indicate that these defensive responses depend on activation of local sGC. The data strengthen the proposal that NO can modulate defensive reactions in the dlPAG.
ABSTRACT Cow’s milk allergy is the most prevalent food allergy that usually begins early in life and β- lactoglobulin (BLG) is the milk component with the highest allergenicity. It has been described that ovalbumin (OVA)-induced food allergy in mice is associated with anxiety and aversive behavior. However, it is yet to be determined whether altered behavior is a general component of food allergy or whether it is specific for some types of allergens. Thus, we investigated behavioral and neuroimmune circuits triggered by allergic sensitization to BLG. We found a neuroimmune conflict between aversion and reward in a model of food allergy induced to BLG. Mice sensitized to BLG did not present aversive behavior when the allergen was used for sensitization and oral challenge. Mice allergic to BLG preferred to drink the allergen-containing solution over water even though they presented high levels of specific IgE, inflammatory cells in the intestinal mucosa and significant weight loss. When sensitized to OVA and orally challenged with the same antigen, mice had display neuron activation in the amygdala suggesting an anxiety-related sensation. On the other hand, OVA-sensitized mice showed preference to consume a mixture of BLG and OVA during oral challenge in spite of their aversion to OVA. Consumption of OVA-BLG solution was associated with neuron activation in the nucleus accumbens, suggesting a reward sensation. Thus, the aversive behavior observed in food allergy to OVA does not apply to all antigens and some allergens may induce preference rather than aversion. Our study provides new insights into the neuroimmune conflicts regarding preference and avoidance to a common antigen associated with food allergy.
Anxiety and stress-related disorders are severe psychiatric conditions that affect performance in daily tasks and represent a high cost to public health. The initial observation of Charles Darwin that animals and human beings share similar characteristics in the expression of emotion raise the possibility of studying the mechanisms of psychiatric disorders in other mammals (mainly rodents). The development of animal models of anxiety and stress has helped to identify the pharmacological mechanisms and potential clinical effects of several drugs. Animal models of anxiety are based on conflict situations that can generate opposite motivational states induced by approach-avoidance situations. The present review revisited the main rodent models of anxiety and stress responses used worldwide. Here we defined as "ethological" the tests that assess unlearned/unpunished responses (such as the elevated plus maze, light-dark box, and open field), whereas models that involve learned/punished responses are referred to as "conditioned operant conflict tests" (such as the Vogel conflict test). We also discussed models that involve mainly classical conditioning tests (fear conditioning). Finally, we addressed the main protocols used to induce stress responses in rodents, including psychosocial (social defeat and neonatal isolation stress), physical (restraint stress), and chronic unpredictable stress.
The dorsal premammillary nucleus (PMd) is a hypothalamic structure that plays a pivotal role in the processing of predatory threats. Lesions of this nucleus virtually eliminate the expression of defensive responses to predator exposure. However, little is known about the neurotransmitters responsible for these behavioral responses. Since PMd neurons express ionotropic glutamate receptors and exposure to predators have been shown to activate nitric oxide (NO) producing cells in this region, the aim of this study was to verify the involvement of glutamate and NO-mediated neurotransmission in defensive reactions modulated by the PMd. We tested in male Wistar rats the hypothesis that intra-PMd injection of the NMDA receptor antagonist, AP7, or the NO synthase inhibitor, N-propyl-L-arginine (NP), would attenuate behavioral responses induced by cat exposure. Our results showed that both AP7 and NP significantly attenuated the behavioral responses induced by the live cat. These results suggest that the NMDA/NO pathway plays an important role in the behavioral responses mediated by the PMd.