Tests are now to aid in determining the amount of acceleration or retardation in a child’s development and the normality or abnormality of his personality. Alfred Binet, the originator of the newer test procedure, had intended it to be a scientific procedure for the detection and demarcation of feeblemindedness; but it now has to fill more difficult and more complicated demands than were anticipated at the time of its conception. The improvement which German scientists, especially William Stern, Lipmann, and Bobertag, made in the Binet–Simon tests were of this type in that they tried to develop tests which called for real intelligence, not the outcome of good education and training. All later American group tests, such as the National Army Tests and the National Intelligence Tests, on which the best workers, including Thorndike, Lewis Terman, and Yerkes collaborated, attempt to presuppose a minimum of linguistic knowledge.
Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) is a problematic invasive species within the Bahamas, associated with numerous environmental problems. Previous studies suggest casuarinas establish ecologically sterile monocultures, yet there is limited research on whether soils from casuarina-dominated sites differ physically or chemically from comparable soils under native vegetation. Because of the lack of knowledge and because this invader has the potential to be detrimental to native ecosystems, we conducted a study to examine differences in soil properties between sites where casuarinas dominated versus sites where casuarinas were absent. Soils at casuarina-dominated sites had lower potassium, phosphorus, and organic matter concentrations and had lower pH levels. But, casuarina-dominated sites had significantly higher leaf-litter abundances. No significant differences between soils were detected for calcium concentrations, magnesium concentrations, cation exchange capacity, nitrate-nitrogen concentrations, or soil moisture levels. A multivariate ordination showed that casuarina-dominated soils were more similar to one another than to non-casuarina soils. Thus, soil characteristics from casuarina-dominated areas appear to differ from comparable habitats devoid of casuarinas. There are at least two possible explanations: certain soil properties may have been more conducive to casuarina invasions, or casuarinas may have modified their soils once they became established. The results of this study provide insights into the invasion process and add to our understanding of how these invaders affect native Bahamian ecosystems.
Tests should be given to all children under the same conditions if valid results are to be expected, and these conditions should be the best obtainable. The requirement of similarity of the test situation which all fields of research have in common has always been varied according to the need in various sciences. Attention should be paid to the room and place where the tests are given, the most favourable time for giving the tests and the duration of the testing procedure should be determined, and the relation between the tester and child established. A test can be successful only when the child is entirely free from outside distractions. Inaccuracies in the procedure include every difficulty arising from a careless or insufficient preparation of the test material or from the test procedure itself. The time of day and the duration of the test are important factors in keeping the child’s condition favourable for taking the tests.
The standardization of the tests brought to a close the problem of their construction. Tests of bodily control, such as walking on a straight line, walking on the toes, standing on one foot, were omitted because children showed great reluctance to undertake them. The test in colour-matching would give similar results as a test of the child’s colour concept independent of language development. In order to make a suitable test item a situation must be satisfactorily solved by a relatively high percentage of children of the age for which the item is intended. The performance of children in practical test situations would be below that of those tested under the experimentally optimal conditions of the standardization procedure. Even though optimal performances are avoided in the Viennese test series, an adult or older child concentrates much more on a test than a younger child whose every situation in life depends on numerous imponderabilia.
To conduct a cross-sectional mapping analysis of HIV knowledge in Zambézia Province, Mozambique, and to examine spatial patterns of HIV knowledge and associated household characteristics.A population-based cluster survey was administered in 2010; data were analysed from 201 enumeration areas in three geographically diverse districts: Alto Molócuè, Morrumbala and Namacurra. We assessed HIV knowledge scores (0-9 points) using previously validated assessment tools. Using geographic information systems (GIS), we mapped hot spots of high and low HIV knowledge. Our multivariable linear regression model estimated HIV knowledge associations with distance to nearest clinic offering antiretroviral therapy, respondent age, education, household size, number of children under five, numeracy, literacy and district of residence.We found little overall HIV knowledge in all three districts. People in Alto Molócuè knew comparatively most about HIV, with a median score of 3 (IQR 2-5) and 22 of 51 (43%) enumeration areas scoring ≥4 of 9 points. Namacurra district, closest to the capital city and expected to have the best HIV knowledge levels, had a median score of 1 (IQR 0-3) and only 3 of 57 (5%) enumeration areas scoring ≥4 points. More HIV knowledge was associated with more education, age, household size, numeracy and proximity to a health facility offering antiretroviral therapy.HIV knowledge is critical for its prevention and treatment. By pinpointing areas of poor HIV knowledge, programme planners can prioritize educational resources and outreach initiatives within the context of antiretroviral therapy expansion.
Objective: Eating habits and taste preferences begin to develop early in life, yet little is known about self-efficacy and struggles related to promoting FV among young children directly from the maternal perspective. Poor diet quality, including low FV consumption, is associated with race/ ethnicity- and income-based health disparities in the U.S., with low-income African Americans reporting the lowest intakes. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore parenting strategies that are perceived as effective for encouraging FV consumption among low-income African American mothers of young children in order to inform future interventions for this at-risk population. Methods: Mothers of 3 to 5-year-old children from two Head Start programs in a southeastern state of the U.S. were recruited for focus group participation. Focus group transcripts were analyzed using a content analysis to identify main themes in relation to perceived effective practices, and key barriers and facilitators to encouraging children’s FV consumption. Results: Accessibility strategies were uniquely perceived as effective for encouraging fruit. Negotiating/coaxing, making available, and using rules were perceived as effective and unique practices for vegetables. Child openness and maternal FV preferences facilitated maternal efforts to encourage FV consumption. Mothers identified three primary barriers to FV consumption: 1) child’s “difficult” temperament; 2) negative family influences, and 3) low maternal FV preferences/modeling. Conclusions: Low-income African American mothers utilize a large number and variety of strategies to encourage children’s FV intake. Mothers themselves can serve as a key source of tips/strategies for each other’s social and educational support. Future research should examine specific strategies that emerged in the current study in relation to actual FV consumption in lowincome African American children
To generate maps reflecting the intersection of community-based Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) delivery points with facility-based HIV program demographic information collected at the district level in three districts (Ile, Maganja da Costa and Chinde) of Zambézia Province, Mozambique; in order to guide planning decisions about antiretroviral therapy (ART) program expansion.Program information was harvested from two separate open source databases maintained for community-based VCT and facility-based HIV care and treatment monitoring from October 2011 to September 2012. Maps were created using ArcGIS 10.1. Travel distance by foot within a 10 km radius is generally considered a tolerable distance in Mozambique for purposes of adherence and retention planning.Community-based VCT activities in each of three districts were clustered within geographic proximity to clinics providing ART, within communities with easier transportation access, and/or near the homes of VCT volunteers. Community HIV testing results yielded HIV seropositivity rates in some regions that were incongruent with the Ministry of Health's estimates for the entire district (2-13% vs. 2% in Ile, 2-54% vs. 11.5% in Maganja da Costa, and 23-43% vs. 14.4% in Chinde). All 3 districts revealed gaps in regional disbursement of community-based VCT activities as well as access to clinics offering ART.Use of geospatial mapping in the context of program planning and monitoring allowed for characterizing the location and size of each district's HIV population. In extremely resource limited and logistically challenging settings, maps are valuable tools for informing evidence-based decisions in planning program expansion, including ART.
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