Additive manufacturing, or three-dimensional (3D) printing, has emerged as a viable technique for the production of vascularized tissue engineering scaffolds. In this report, a biocompatible and biodegradable poly(tri(ethylene glycol) adipate) dimethacrylate was synthesized and characterized for suitability in soft-tissue scaffolding applications. The polyester dimethacrylate exhibited highly efficient photocuring, hydrolyzability, and 3D printability in a custom microstereolithography system. The photocured polyester film demonstrated significantly improved cell attachment and viability as compared with controls. These results indicate promise of novel, printable polyesters for 3D patterned, vascularized soft-tissue engineering scaffolds.
Supramolecular chemistry continues to experience widespread growth, as fine-tuned chemical structures lead to well-defined bulk materials. Previous literature described the roles of hydrogen bonding, ionic aggregation, guest/host interactions, and π-π stacking to tune mechanical, viscoelastic, and processing performance. The versatility of reversible interactions enables the more facile manufacturing of molded parts with tailored hierarchical structures such as tissue engineered scaffolds for biological applications. Recently, supramolecular polymers and additive manufacturing processes merged to provide parts with control of the molecular, macromolecular, and feature length scales. Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, generates customizable constructs desirable for many applications, and the introduction of supramolecular interactions will potentially increase production speed, offer a tunable surface structure for controlling cell/scaffold interactions, and impart desired mechanical properties through reinforcing interlayer adhesion and introducing gradients or self-assembled structures. This review details the synthesis and characterization of supramolecular polymers suitable for additive manufacture and biomedical applications as well as the use of supramolecular polymers in additive manufacturing for drug delivery and complex tissue scaffold formation. The effect of supramolecular assembly and its dynamic behavior offers potential for controlling the anisotropy of the printed objects with exquisite geometrical control. The potential for supramolecular polymers to generate well-defined parts, hierarchical structures, and scaffolds with gradient properties/tuned surfaces provides an avenue for developing next-generation biomedical devices and tissue scaffolds.
The inherent hydrolytic reactivity of polyesters renders them excellent candidates for a variety of biomedical applications. Incorporating ionic groups further expands their potential impact, encompassing charge-dependent function such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) binding, antibacterial properties, and pH-responsiveness. Catalyst-free and solvent-free polycondensation of a bromomethyl imidazolium-containing (BrMeIm) diol with neopentylglycol (NPG) and adipic acid (AA) afforded novel charged copolyesters with pendant imidazolium sites. Varying ionic content influenced thermal properties and offered a wide-range, -41 to 40 °C, of composition-dependent glass transition temperatures (Tgs). In addition to desirable melt and thermal stability, polyesters with ionic concentrations ≥15 mol % readily dispersed in water, suggesting potential as nonviral gene delivery vectors. An electrophoretic gel shift assay confirmed the novel cationic copolyesters successfully bound DNA at an N/P ratio of 4 for 50 mol % and 75 mol % charged copolyesters (P(NA50-co-ImA50) and P(NA25-co-ImA75)), and an N/P ratio of 5 for 100 mol % Im (PImA). Polyplexes exhibited insignificant cytotoxicity even at high concentrations (200 μg/mL), and a Luciferase transfection assay revealed the ionic (co)polyesters transfected DNA significantly better than the untreated controls. The successful transfection of these novel (co)polyesters inspires future imidazolium-containing polyester design.
Single-walled carbon nanohorns (SWNHs) have significant potential for use in photothermal therapies due to their capability to absorb near infrared light and deposit heat. Additionally, their extensive relative surface area and volume makes them ideal drug delivery vehicles. Novel multimodal treatments are envisioned in which laser excitation can be utilized in combination with chemotherapeutic-SWNH conjugates to thermally enhance the therapeutic efficacy of the transported drug. Although mild hyperthermia (41-43 °C) has been shown to increase cellular uptake of drugs such as cisplatin (CDDP) leading to thermal enhancement, studies on the effects of hyperthermia on cisplatin loaded nanoparticles are currently limited. After using a carbodiimide chemical reaction to attach CDDP to the exterior surface of SWNHs and nitric acid to incorporate CDDP in the interior volume, we determined the effects of mild hyperthermia on the efficacy of the CDDP-SWNH conjugates. Rat bladder transitional carcinoma cells were exposed to free CDDP or one of two CDDP-SWNH conjugates in vitro at 37 °C and 42 °C with the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) for each treatment. The in vitro results demonstrate that unlike free CDDP, CDDP-SWNH conjugates do not exhibit thermal enhancement at 42 °C. An increase in viability of 16% and 7% was measured when cells were exposed at 42 deg compared to 37 deg for the surface attached and volume loaded CDDP-SWNH conjugates, respectively. Flow cytometry and confocal microscopy showed a decreased uptake of CDDP-SWNH conjugates at 42 °C compared to 37 °C, revealing the importance of nanoparticle uptake on the CDDP-SWNH conjugate's efficacy, particularly when hyperthermia is used as an adjuvant, and demonstrates the effect of particle size on uptake during mild hyperthermia. The uptake and drug release studies elucidated the difference in viability seen in the drug efficacy studies at different temperatures. We speculate that the disparity in thermal enhancement efficacy observed for free drug compared to the drug SWNH conjugates is due to their intrinsic size differences and, therefore, their mode of cellular uptake: diffusion or endocytosis. These experiments indicate the importance of tuning properties of nanoparticle-drug conjugates to maximize cellular uptake to ensure thermal enhancement in nanoparticle mediated photothermal-chemotherapy treatments.
Due to continued health and safety concerns surrounding isocyanates, alternative synthetic routes to obtain urea-containing polymers is gaining much attention.
