The response of low‐density pressings (64–70% theoretical maximum density) of CL‐20 (Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane) to shock impact has been investigated with numerical simulation using BN (Baer‐Nunziato) multiphase modeling. Validation data for the modeling was acquired from wave profiles measured with VISAR from low‐velocity impact gas‐gun experiments. Previously unreported equation of state (EOS) data for CL‐20 was determined to support the numerical modeling. An intergranular stress relationship, which was needed for the multiphase modeling, was determined from the dynamic loading data. Additionally, a Mie‐Grüneisen equation of state for crystalline CL‐20 was constructed from previously reported diamond anvil cell (DAC) isothermal compression experiments. The predictions of the observed elastic wave precursors and compaction wave profiles were in good agreement with the data over the range of impact velocities reported herein. A multiphase model is needed to describe the deflagration‐to‐detonation transition (DDT) in porous CL‐20 samples initiated by dynamic compaction.
Fluid-structure interaction problems that require estimating the response of thin structures within fluids to shock loading have wide applicability. For example, these problems may include underwater explosions and the dynamic response of ships and submarines; and biological applications such as Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and wound ballistics. In all of these applications the process of cavitation, where small cavities with dissolved gases or vapor are formed as the local pressure drops below the vapor pressure due to shock hydrodynamics, can cause significant damage to the surrounding thin structures or membranes if these bubbles collapse, generating additional shock loading. Hence, a two-phase equation of state (EOS) with three distinct regions of compression, expansion, and tension was developed to model shock-induced cavitation. This EOS was evaluated by comparing data from pressure and temperature shock Hugoniot measurements for water up to 400 kbar, and data from ultrasonic pressure measurements in tension to -0.3 kbar, to simulated responses from CTH, an Eulerian, finite volume shock code. The new EOS model showed significant improvement over preexisting CTH models such as the SESAME EOS for capturing cavitation.
A microscale model of the brain was developed in order to understand the details of intracranial fluid cavitation and the damage mechanisms associated with cavitation bubble collapse due to blast-induced traumatic brain injury (TBI). Our macroscale model predicted cavitation in regions of high concentration of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood. The results from this macroscale simulation directed the development of the microscale model of the superior sagittal sinus (SSS) region. The microscale model includes layers of scalp, skull, dura, superior sagittal sinus, falx, arachnoid, subarachnoid spacing, pia, and gray matter. We conducted numerical simulations to understand the effects of a blast load applied to the scalp with the pressure wave propagating through the layers and eventually causing the cavitation bubbles to collapse. Collapse of these bubbles creates spikes in pressure and von Mises stress downstream from the bubble locations. We investigate the influence of cavitation bubble size, compressive wave amplitude, and internal bubble pressure. The results indicate that these factors may contribute to a greater downstream pressure and von Mises stress which could lead to significant tissue damage.
Blast waves from an e xplosion in air can cause si gnificant structural damage. As an example, cylindrically-shaped charges have been used for over a century as dynamite sticks for mining, excavation, and demolition. Near the charge, the effects of geometry, standoff from the ground, the proximity to other objects, confinement (tamping), and location of the detonator can significantly affect blast wave characteristics. Furthermore, nonuniformity in the surface characteristics and the density of the charge can affect fireball and shockwave structure. Currently, the best method for predicting the shock structure near a charge and the dynamic loading on nearby structures is to use a multidimensional, multimaterial shock physics code. However, no single numerical technique curren tly exists for predicting secondary combustion, especially when particulates from the charge are propelled through the fireball and ahead of the leading shock lens. Furthermore, the air within the thin shocked layer can dissociate and ionize. Hence, an appropriate equation of state for air is needed in these extreme environments. As a step towar ds predicting this complex phenomenon, a technique was developed to provide the equilibrium species composition at every computational cell in a n air blast simulation as an initial condition for hand-off to other analysis codes for combusti on fluid dynamics or radiation transport. Her e, a bare cylindrical charge of TNT detonated in air is simulated using CTH, an Eulerian, finite volume, shock propagation code developed and maintained at Sandia National Laboratories. The shock front propagation is computed at early times, including the detonation wave structure in the explosi ve and the subs equent air shock up to 100 microseconds, where ambient air entr ainment is not sig nificant. At each computational cell, which could have TNT detonation products, air, or both TNT and air, the equilibrium species concentration at the density-energy state is computed using the JCZS2i database in the thermochemical code TIGER. Thi s extensive database of 1267 gas (including 189 ioniz ed species) an d 490 condensed species can predict thermodynamic states up to 20,000 K. The results of these calculations provide the detailed three-dimensional structure of a thin shock front, and spatial species concentrations including free radicals and ions. Further more, air shock predictions are compared with experi mental pressure gage data from a right circul ar cylinder of pressed TNT, detonated at one end. These complime ntary predictions show excellent agreement with the data for the primary wave structure.
