20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PPD) has a higher anti-wrinkle effect than the other glycone forms of ginsenosides. However, as PPD has low solubility in water and a high molecular weight, it cannot easily penetrate the stratum corneum layer, which is the rate-limiting step of topical skin delivery. Thus, the objective was to enhance the topical skin deposition of PPD using an optimized nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) formulation. NLC formulations were optimized using a Box-Behnken design.NLC formulations were optimized using a Box-Behnken design, where the amount of PDD (X1), volume of the liquid lipid (X2), and amount of surfactant (X3) were set as the independent variables, while the particle size (Y1), polydispersity index (PDI) (Y2), and entrapment efficiency (EE) (Y3) were dependent factors. An in vitro deposition study was performed using Strat-M® and human cadaver skin, while in vivo skin irritation effect of the NLC formulation was evaluated in humans.An NLC was successfully prepared based on the optimized formulation determined using the Box-Behnken design. The particle size, PDI, and EE of the NLC showed less than 5% difference from the predicted values. The in vitro deposition of PPD after the application of the NLC formulation on a Strat-M® artificial membrane and human cadaver skin was significantly higher than that of the controls. Moreover, NLC formulations with and without PDD were not skin irritants in a human study.An NLC formulation for the topical delivery of PPD was successfully optimized using the Box-Behnken design, and could be further developed to enhance the topical skin deposition of PPD.
Due to the impermeable structure and barrier function of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), the delivery of therapeutic molecules into the CNS is extremely limited. Nanodelivery systems are regarded as the most effective and versatile carriers for the CNS, as they can transport cargo molecules across the BBB via various mechanisms. This review emphasizes the multi-functionalization strategies of nanodelivery systems and combinatorial approaches for the delivery of therapeutic drugs and genes into the CNS. The characteristics and functions of the BBB and underlying mechanisms of molecular translocation across the BBB are also described.
Self-incompatibility (SI) in Brassicaceae vegetables prevents self-pollination by recognizing self-pollens and rejecting them at the stigmatic surfaces. The S -haplotypes of 47 hybrid radish cultivars that are commercially available in Korea were classified and identified using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP). Twelve kinds of S -haplotypes were identified from the cultivars: S 1 , S 8 , S 11 , S 17 , S 18 , S 30 , and S 31 haplotypes in class-I S -haplotype and S 4 , S 5 , S 13 , S 21 , and S 26 haplotypes in class-II S -haplotypes. Even though the class-II S -haplotypes are supposed to exhibit weak and/or leaky SI activity, the class-II S -haplotypes showed the same allele frequency of class-I S -haplotypes in 38 fully classified commercial cultivars. The SI activity was examined using the pollen tube germination test, flower pollination test, and the seed set ratio analysis. The pollen tube test showed low correlation ( R 2 = 0.13) with the flower pollination test, a conventional method. The results of seed set ratio analysis varied from 0% to 159%, and thus could distinguish the weak and strong SI activity clearly and showed high correlation with the flower pollination test ( R 2 = 0.69). The seed set ratios of the cultivars possessing the class-I/class-I, class-I/class-II, and class-II/class-II genotypes were 0.6%, 17.4%, and 38.1%, respectively. Among the eight class-II/class-II cultivars, three cultivars showed strong SI activity. The SI activity of the S 4 S 17 , S 5 S 8 , and S 4 S 26 genotypes varied among cultivars, but the S 1 S 17 , S 5 S 17 , and S 8 S 26 genotypes showed constant strong, intermediate, and strong activity, respectively, among the cultivars. Results indicate that the SI activity of Brassicaceae vegetables depends not only on the S -haplotypes, but also on the genetic background of cultivars.
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