José Evelio Aguiño

Universidad de Alcalá

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Cristina Suárez

Universidad de Alcalá

Sonia Quiroga

Universidad Complutense de Madrid

Virginia Hernanz

Universidad de Alcalá

Juan F. Fernández‐Manjarrés

Écologie, Systématique et Évolution

Cooperative Institutions

Universidad de Alcalá

University of Exeter

Écologie, Systématique et Évolution

Université Paris-Saclay

Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique

AgroParisTech

Université Paris-Sud

Stellenbosch University

World Conservation Monitoring Centre

University of Lisbon

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Exploring the Role of Community Organizations as Environmental Vulnerability Insurance for Cacao Smallholders in Colombia: Strategies for Achieving Equitable Prices Through Spatial Analysis

Virginia Hernanz Sonia Quiroga Cristina Suárez José Evelio Aguiño

Replacing illicit crops with cacao in Colombia's South-Pacific region involves social-ecological restoration, linked to local and international NGOs' roles. Technical improvements are contingent on social progress to support vulnerable Afro-Colombian communities in a territory typically dominated by illicit crops. This transition is not just economic but crucial for post-conflict agreements and violence reduction. This paper analyses the determinants of differences in the selling price of cacao, assuming that the decision to be able to sell cacao dry and access international markets is more likely related to the support and assistance provided to farmers and their families than to the monetary price they receive. To be able to obtain a sustainable production of quality dry cacao is conditioned by access to adequate infrastructures. And, without access to this higher quality production, the substitution of illicit crops does not seem viable, and with it, the environmental sustainability and social cohesion of the territory. This research delves into the determinants of farmers' ability to sell dry cacao through a spatial econometric model that considers the influence of the related neighbourhoods. Our findings show that increasing the participation of producers in community councils supported by international NGOs is fundamental to deal with environmental risks.

Vulnerability

Crop insurance

10.2139/ssrn.4442786

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Exploring the Role of Community Organisations as Environmental Vulnerability Insurance for Cacao Smallholders in Colombia

Journal of Cleaner Production (2024)

Virginia Hernanz Sonia Quiroga Cristina Suárez José Evelio Aguiño

Vulnerability

10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.144371

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A spatial analysis of the relevance of community organizations as an insurance against the economic and environmental vulnerability of Colombian cacao producers.

Sonia Quiroga Cristina Suárez Virginia Hernanz José Evelio Aguiño

The future of replacing illicit crops with cocoa in the South-Pacific region of Colombia goes far beyond the economic viability of these plantations. The process of social and ecological restoration (SER) that this process implies is intrinsically linked to the role of local organisations and the support of international non-governmental organisations, which are introducing the main technical improvements conditional on the achievement of social improvements. Here we analyse the situation in the South-Pacific region of Colombia, a territory traditionally dominated by illicit crops, inhabited by vulnerable Afro-American communities, and where post-conflict agreements are having a special relevance due to the high level of violence. This paper analyses the determinants of differences in the selling price of cocoa, assuming that the decision to be able to sell cocoa dry and access international markets is directly related to the support received by farmers. To be able to obtain a sustainable production of quality dry cocoa, the main requirement for accessing international market prices, is conditioned by access to adequate infrastructures. And, without access to this higher quality production, the substitution of illicit crops does not seem viable, and with it the environmental sustainability and social cohesion of the territory. Therefore, we analyse the determinants of farmers' ability to sell dry cocoa: percentage of cocoa damaged by pests, the pressure of violence. To do so, we use spatial econometric models, as these have been found to be more appropriate than other types of models. And we show that increasing the participation of producers in community councils supported by international NGOs is fundamental to achieving a better cocoa price.

Vulnerability

Cohesion (chemistry)

Econometric model

Market access

10.5194/egusphere-egu23-16861

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Evaluating the merit of Carbon Credits: Is there a lack of effectiveness in transitioning from direct Payments for Ecosystem Services to REDD+ community-based incentives?

Environmental and Sustainability Indicators (2025)

Virginia Hernanz Sonia Quiroga Cristina Suárez José Evelio Aguiño

Carbon credit

Direct Payments

10.1016/j.indic.2025.100591

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Evaluating the merit of Carbon Credits: Is there a lack of effectiveness in transitioning from direct Payments for Ecosystem Services to REDD+ community-based incentives?

Sonia Quiroga Virginia Hernanz Cristina Suárez José Evelio Aguiño

Rich in biodiversity, Tumaco is a focal point for REDD+ projects that aim to combat deforestation and promote sustainable land use. Cacao farming, vital to the local economy, offers an opportunity to reconcile livelihoods and conservation. However, challenges remain in reconciling cacao and forest conservation. This study explores the benefits of sustainable cacao practices, such as agroforestry, for economic development and environmental conservation. It also looks at the challenges farmers face and the implications for the success of REDD+. Perceptions of climate change profoundly influence farmers' perspectives and behaviours in the context of REDD+ initiatives, shaping the sustainability and effectiveness of such efforts. Therefore, fostering a robust understanding of climate change among local farmers is critical to improving the integration of sustainable cacao production into REDD+ frameworks. This research aims to provide insights for policy makers and project implementers to advance both conservation and development goals in the Tumaco region, by addressing potential synergies and trade-offs between cacao production and REDD+ initiatives. The farmers' lack of knowledge is particularly worrying, not only for the fight against climate change, but also because if the cacao farmers of Tumaco do not see the incentives of carbon credits as a sustainable source of income, they will be forced to return to illegal crops, and the socio-environmental development of these communities will be compromised.

Carbon credit

Direct Payments

10.5194/egusphere-egu24-20767

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Analysing post-conflict policies to enhance socio-ecological restoration among black communities in Southern Colombia: Cacao cropping as a win–win strategy

Forest Policy and Economics (2024)

Sonia Quiroga Cristina Suárez Virginia Hernanz José Evelio Aguiño Juan F. Fernández‐Manjarrés

Armed conflict and peace-building processes have often prolonged extreme extraction and deforestation practices. This research examines the potential drivers of local forest transitions in relation to the peace-building process in Colombia's South Pacific region; an area that has been traditionally dominated by illicit crops, inhabited by vulnerable Afro-Colombian communities and in areas where post-conflict agreements are particularly relevant due to high levels of violence. The study provides valuable insights for public policies that prioritise forest restoration and to assess how this process can contribute to broader goals of sustainable rural development and peace building. The findings highlight the importance of Social and Ecological Restoration (SER) strategies that help local communities to develop medium-term plans, improve decision-making efficiency and create fair and sustainable pathways for rural territories and residents. This study analyses how the introduction of 'shade-grown' agroforestry systems (i.e. cacao) to replace illicit crops can be a stepping-stone to regional environmental sustainability and social cohesion by reducing deforestation pressure. The results demonstrate that promoting local economic development and land decentralisation in favour of Afro-Colombian communities may be the key to successfully substituting illicit crops as part of the ongoing peace agreements in Colombia.

Deforestation

Social conflict

10.1016/j.forpol.2024.103198

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Citations (6)

Analysing Post-Conflict Policies to Enhance Socio-Ecological Restoration Among Black Communities in Southern Colombia: Cacao Cropping as a Win-Win Strategy

SSRN Electronic Journal (2022)

Sonia Quiroga Cristina Suárez Virginia Hernanz José Evelio Aguiño Juan F. Fernández‐Manjarrés

Social and ecological restoration (SER) is at the heart of conflict prevention strategies, focusing efforts on reducing frequent existing inequalities as well as reducing pressure on the territory. SER helps local communities to maintain medium term strategies, increasing decision-making efficiency and generating more just and sustainable paths for the territory and the communities that inhabit it. Here we analyse the situation in the South-Pacific region of Colombia, a territory traditionally dominated by illicit crops, inhabited by vulnerable Afro-Colombian communities, and where post-conflict agreements are having a special relevance due to the high level of violence. This work analyses how the introduction of ‘under shadow’ agroforestry systems, such as cacao, as a substitute of illicit crops, can be a stepping-stone for environmental sustainability and social cohesion of the territory reducing deforestation pressures. We analyse the response of farmers to peace agreements, level of violence, sustainable development goals, jointly with the response to historical processes, such as "negritud" laws affecting land concentration and distribution of income and preservation of Afro-Colombian’ heritage in the territory. We show that increasing both the development of local economies and promoting the existing land de-concentration process on the benefit of Afro-Colombian communities, may be the success key for the on-going illicit crops substitution strategy of Colombian peace agreements.

10.2139/ssrn.4303387

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