Cytoplasmic dynein provides the main motor force for minus-end-directed transport of cargo on microtubules. Within the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS), proliferation, neuronal migration, and retrograde axon transport are among the cellular functions known to require dynein. Accordingly, mutations of DYNC1H1, which encodes the heavy chain subunit of cytoplasmic dynein, have been linked to developmental brain malformations and axonal pathologies. Oligodendrocytes, the myelinating glial cell type of the CNS, migrate from their origins to their target axons and subsequently extend multiple long processes that ensheath axons with specialized insulating membrane. These processes are filled with microtubules, which facilitate molecular transport of myelin components. However, whether oligodendrocytes require cytoplasmic dynein to ensheath axons with myelin is not known.We identified a mutation of zebrafish dync1h1 in a forward genetic screen that caused a deficit of oligodendrocytes. Using in vivo imaging and gene expression analyses, we additionally found evidence that dync1h1 promotes axon ensheathment and myelin gene expression.In addition to its well known roles in axon transport and neuronal migration, cytoplasmic dynein contributes to neural development by promoting myelination.
Serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT)] acts through multiple G protein-coupled 5-HT receptors, and its activity is also regulated by the 5-HT transporter. The current studies report the expression and localization of the 5-HT receptors and transporter in the kidney. In addition, the enzymatic pathway mediating 5-HT synthesis is present in renal cortex, especially in the proximal tubules and glomerular epithelial cells and mesangial cells. Expression of the 5-HT receptors and 5-HT transporter was detected by RT-PCR in cell lines of these cell types. In cultured proximal tubule cells and podocytes, 5-HT activated ERK1/2 and increased the expression of connective tissue growth factor and transforming growth factor-beta, two key mediators of extracellular matrix accumulation. Immunohistochemistry and real-time RT-PCR studies also indicated that 5-HT stimulated expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in podocytes in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, these results indicate the presence of an integrated intrarenal serotonergic system and suggest a possible role for 5-HT as a mediator of renal fibrosis in the kidney.
Formation of heart valves requires early endocardial to mesenchymal transformation (EMT) to generate valve mesenchyme and subsequent endocardial cell proliferation to elongate valve leaflets. Nfatc1 (nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic 1) is highly expressed in valve endocardial cells and is required for normal valve formation, but its role in the fate of valve endocardial cells during valve development is unknown.Our aim was to investigate the function of Nfatc1 in cell-fate decision making by valve endocardial cells during EMT and early valve elongation.Nfatc1 transcription enhancer was used to generate a novel valve endocardial cell-specific Cre mouse line for fate-mapping analyses of valve endocardial cells. The results demonstrate that a subpopulation of valve endocardial cells marked by the Nfatc1 enhancer do not undergo EMT. Instead, these cells remain within the endocardium as a proliferative population to support valve leaflet extension. In contrast, loss of Nfatc1 function leads to enhanced EMT and decreased proliferation of valve endocardium and mesenchyme. The results of blastocyst complementation assays show that Nfatc1 inhibits EMT in a cell-autonomous manner. We further reveal by gene expression studies that Nfatc1 suppresses transcription of Snail1 and Snail2, the key transcriptional factors for initiation of EMT.These results show that Nfatc1 regulates the cell-fate decision making of valve endocardial cells during valve development and coordinates EMT and valve elongation by allocating endocardial cells to the 2 morphological events essential for valve development.
Recovery from acute kidney injury requires regeneration of tubule cells. Because calcineurin induces nuclear transport of NFATc proteins, whose expression pattern correlates with the nephron segments injured by calcineurin inhibitors, we hypothesized that NFATc1 plays a role in modifying epithelial regeneration after injury. To test this, we induced proximal tubular cell (PTC) injury in Balb/c mice and Nfatc1+/− mice with mercuric chloride; the PTCs of Nfatc1+/− mice demonstrated increased apoptosis, sustained injury, and delayed regeneration. To attenuate NFATc1 activity further, we injected cyclosporin A daily. Cyclosporin A–treated Nfatc1+/− mice demonstrated rapid and severe injury after administration of mercuric chloride, with increased serum creatinine, increased apoptosis, decreased PTC proliferation, and increased mortality compared with similarly treated wild-type mice. Using a novel NFATc1 transgenic line that reports activation of an NFATc1 enhancer domain critical for NFATc1 autoamplification, we demonstrated accentuated NFATc1 expression in a PTC subpopulation after mercuric chloride–induced injury. In addition, NFATc1-labeled, apoptosis-resistant PTCs proliferated to repair the damaged proximal tubule segment. These data provide evidence for a resident progenitor PTC population and suggest a role for NFATc1 in the regeneration of injured proximal tubules.
Interaction of Schwann cells with axons triggers signal transduction that drives expression of Pou3f1 and Egr2 transcription factors, which in turn promote myelination. Signal transduction appears to be mediated, at least in part, by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) because elevation of cAMP levels can stimulate myelination in the absence of axon contact. The mechanisms by which the myelinating signal is conveyed remain unclear. By analyzing mutations that disrupt myelination in zebrafish, we learned that Dynein cytoplasmic 1 heavy chain 1 (Dync1h1), which functions as a motor for intracellular molecular trafficking, is required for peripheral myelination. In dync1h1 mutants, Schwann cell progenitors migrated to peripheral nerves but then failed to express Pou3f1 and Egr2 or make myelin membrane. Genetic mosaic experiments revealed that robust Myelin Basic Protein expression required Dync1h1 function within both Schwann cells and axons. Finally, treatment of dync1h1 mutants with a drug to elevate cAMP levels stimulated myelin gene expression. Dync1h1 is required for retrograde transport in axons and mutations of Dync1h1 have been implicated in axon disease. Our data now provide evidence that Dync1h1 is also required for efficient myelination of peripheral axons by Schwann cells, perhaps by facilitating signal transduction necessary for myelination.
The transforming growth factorβ (Tgfβ) signaling pathway plays crucial roles in many biological processes. To understand the role(s) of Tgfβ signaling during cardiogenesis in vivo and to overcome the early lethality of Tgfbr2-/- embryos, we applied a Cre/loxp system to specifically inactivate Tgfbr2 in either the myocardium or the endothelium of mouse embryos. Our results show that Tgfbr2 in the myocardium is dispensable for cardiogenesis in most embryos. Contrary to the prediction from results of previous in vitro collagen gel assays, inactivation of Tgfbr2 in the endocardium does not prevent atrioventricular cushion mesenchyme formation, arguing against its essential role in epithelium-mesenchyme transformation in vivo. We further demonstrate that Tgfβ signaling is required for the proper remodeling of the atrioventricular canal and for cardiac looping, and that perturbation in Tgfβ signaling causes the double-inlet left ventricle (DILV) defect. Thus, our study provides a unique mouse genetic model for DILV, further characterization of which suggests a potential cellular mechanism for the defect.
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