Bone tissue engineering demands advanced biomaterials with tailored properties. In this regard, composite scaffolds offer a strategy to integrate the desired functionalities. These scaffolds are expected to provide sufficient cellular activities while maintaining the required strength necessary for the bone repair for which they are intended. Hence, attempts to obtain efficient composites are growing. However, in most cases, the conventional production methods of scaffolds are energy-intensive and leave an impact on the environment. This work aims to develop a biocomposite scaffold integrating bacterial cellulose (BC), hydroxyapatite (HAp), and graphene oxide (GO), designated as "BC/HAp/GO". All components are sourced primarily from agricultural and food waste as alternative means. BC, known for its biocompatibility, fine fiber network, and high porosity, serves as an ideal scaffold material. HAp, a naturally occurring bone component, contributes osteoconductive properties, while GO provides mechanical strength and biofunctionalization capabilities. The biomaterials were analyzed and characterized using a scanning electron microscope, a X-ray diffractometer, and a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer. The produced biocomposite scaffolds were tested for thermal stability, mechanical strength, and biocompatibility. The results showed a nanofibrous, porous network of BC, highly crystalline HAp particles, and well-oxygenated GO flakes with slight structural deformities. The synthesized biocomposite demonstrated promising characteristics, such as increased tensile strength due to added GO particles and higher bioactivity through the introduction of HAp. These inexpensively synthesized materials, marked by suitable surface morphology and cell adhesion properties, open potential applications in bone repair and regeneration.
Graphene oxide (GO) is a member of the graphene family that is intensively used in many fields such as electronics, environmental protection, and biomedical applications. GO is mainly produced from commercially available graphite powder. In this study, however, GO was synthesized from alternative carbon-rich biomass residues that are readily available: spent tea leaves, and coffee waste. These residues were treated with dilute HCl to remove impurities and then soaked in NaOH to activate their carbon. Highly porous GO nanomaterials were successfully synthesized using the modified Hummer's method after pyrolysis of the biomasses at a moderate temperature. These nanomaterials were characterized using FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, SEM, and XRD. FTIR results indicated the removal of oxygen (C-O and O-H bonds), carboxyl, carbonyl, carboxylic, and epoxy functional groups from the biomass through pyrolysis. Raman spectroscopy of the GO particles revealed the extent of the oxidation process. SEM images showed vascular-shaped graphene layers with porous and semi-porous surfaces. X-ray diffraction patterns showed an amorphous shape. The properties of the synthesized GO particles were compared with GO produced from the conventional source: graphite. The results indicated considerable similarities. Hence, biomass residuals can be considered a viable, environmentally-friendly source for GO.
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