We present a series of papers dedicated to modelling the accretion and differentiation of rocky planets that form by pebble accretion within the lifetime of the protoplanetary disc. In this first paper, we focus on how the accreted ice determines the distribution of iron between the mantle (oxidized FeO and FeO$_{1.5}$) and the core (metallic Fe and FeS). We find that an initial primitive composition of ice-rich material leads, upon heating by the decay of $^{26}$Al, to extensive water flow and the formation of clay minerals inside planetesimals. Metallic iron dissolves in liquid water and precipitates as oxidized magnetite Fe$_3$O$_4$. Further heating by $^{26}$Al destabilizes the clay at a temperature of around 900 K. The released supercritical water ejects the entire water content from the planetesimal. Upon reaching the silicate melting temperature of 1,700 K, planetesimals further differentiate into a core (made mainly of iron sulfide FeS) and a mantle with a high fraction of oxidized iron. We propose that the asteroid Vesta's significant FeO fraction in the mantle is a testimony of its original ice content. We consider Vesta to be a surviving member of the population of protoplanets from which Mars, Earth, and Venus grew by pebble accretion. We show that the increase in the core mass fraction and decrease in FeO contents with increasing planetary mass (in the sequence Vesta -- Mars -- Earth) is naturally explained by the growth of terrestrial planets outside of the water ice line through accretion of pebbles containing iron that was dominantly in metallic form with an intrinsically low oxidation degree.
Previous isotope studies of lunar samples have demonstrated that volatile loss was an important part of the early history of the Moon. The radiogenic U-Pb system, where Pb has a significantly lower T50% condensation temperature than U, has the capacity to both recognize and calibrate the extent of volatile loss but this approach has been hindered by terrestrial Pb contamination of samples. We employ a novel method that integrates analyses of individual samples by Ion Microprobe and Thermal Ionization mass spectrometry to correct for ubiquitous common Pb contamination, a method that results in significantly higher estimates for µ-values (238U/204Pb) than previously reported. Using this method, six of seven samples of low-Ti basaltic meteorites return µ-values between 1900 and 9600, values that are consistent with a re-evaluation of published results that return µ-values of 510–2900 for both low- and high-Ti basalts. While some degree of fractionation during partial melting may increase µ-values, we infer that the source region(s) for the basalts must also have had elevated µ-values by the time the lunar magma ocean solidified. Models to account for the available initial Pb isotopic compositions of lunar basalts in light of timing constraints from thermal modelling imply that their source regions had a µ-value of at least 280, consistent with the elevated µ-values of lunar basalts and that inferred for their sources. Such high µ-values are attributed to the preferential loss of more than 99% of the Pb over U relative to a precursor with a Mars-like composition in the aftermath of the giant impact. Such an extensive loss of Pb is consistent with previously reported losses of other elements with comparable volatility, namely Zn, Rb, Ga and CrO2. Finally, our modelling of highly-radiogenic lunar Pb isotopes assuming crystallization of the lunar magma ocean over 10′s of millions of years shows that the elevated µ-values allows for, but does not require, a young Moon formation age.
Beryllium-10 is a short-lived radionuclide (t1/2 = 1.4 Myr) uniquely synthesized by spallation reactions and inferred to have been present when the solar system's oldest solids (calcium–aluminum-rich inclusions, CAIs) formed. Yet, the astrophysical site of 10Be nucleosynthesis is uncertain. We report Li–Be–B isotope measurements of CAIs from CV chondrites, including CAIs that formed with the canonical 26Al/27Al ratio of ∼5 × 10−5 (canonical CAIs) and CAIs with Fractionation and Unidentified Nuclear isotope effects (FUN-CAIs) characterized by 26Al/27Al ratios much lower than the canonical value. Our measurements demonstrate the presence of four distinct fossil 10Be/9Be isochrons, lower in the FUN-CAIs than in the canonical CAIs, and variable within these classes. Given that FUN-CAI precursors escaped evaporation–recondensation prior to evaporative melting, we suggest that the 10Be/9Be ratio recorded by FUN-CAIs represents a baseline level present in presolar material inherited from the protosolar molecular cloud, generated via enhanced trapping of galactic cosmic rays. The higher and possibly variable apparent 10Be/9Be ratios of canonical CAIs reflect additional spallogenesis, either in the gaseous CAI-forming reservoir, or in the inclusions themselves: this indicates at least two nucleosynthetic sources of 10Be in the early solar system. The most promising locale for 10Be synthesis is close to the proto-Sun during its early mass-accreting stages, as these are thought to coincide with periods of intense particle irradiation occurring on timescales significantly shorter than the formation interval of canonical CAIs.
Polymict ureilites are meteoritic breccias that provide insights into the differentiation history of the ureilite parent body. We have sampled a total of 24 clasts from the polymict ureilite Dar al Gani 319, representing a variety of lithologies such as mantle residues, cumulates and crustal fragments that are genetically related to monomict ureilites. In addition, we sampled four non-indigenous dark clasts and two chondrule-containing clasts from the same meteorite. We report on the petrology and the bulk mass-dependent and mass-independent magnesium and chromium isotope systematics of these clasts. The DaG 319 polymict ureilite consists predominantly of clasts related to Main Group ureilite residues (MG clasts) with varying Mg#s (0.74–0.91), as well as a significant fraction of olivine-orthopyroxene clasts related to Hughes Type ureilites (HT clasts) with consistently high Mg#s (∼0.89). In addition, DaG 319 contains less abundant feldspathic clasts that are thought to represent melts derived from the ureilite mantle. A significant mass-dependent Mg-isotope fractionation totaling Δμ25Mg = ∼450 ppm was found between isotopically light feldspathic clasts (μ25Mg = −305 ± 25 to 15 ± 12 ppm), MG clasts (μ25Mg = −23 ± 51 ppm) and HT clasts (μ25Mg = 157 ± 21 ppm). We suggest that this isotopic offset is the result of equilibrium isotope fractionation during melting in the presence of an isotopically light magnesite component. We propose Mg-carbonates to be stable in the upper ureilite mantle, and pure carbon phases such as graphite to be stable at higher pressures. This is consistent with HT clasts lacking carbon-related phases, whereas MG clasts contain abundant carbon. The timing of differentiation events for the ureilitic clasts are constrained by high precision 53Mn-53Cr systematics and 26Al-26Mg model ages. We show that a dichotomy of ages exist between the differentiation of main group ureilite residues and HT cumulates rapidly after CAI formation and later remelting of cumulates with corresponding feldspathic melts, at 3.8 ± 1.3 Myr after CAI formation. Assuming an initial 26Al/27Al abundance [(26Al/27Al)0 = 1.33-0.18+0.21 × 10−5] similar to the angrite parent body, the early melting event is best explained by heat production from 26Al whereas the late event is more likely caused by a major impact. Variations in 54Cr between MG clasts and HT clasts agree with a carbonaceous chondrite impactor onto the ureilite parent body. This impactor may be represented by abundant dark clasts found in polymict ureilites, which have μ26Mg∗ and μ54Cr signatures similar to CI chondrites. Similar volatile-rich dark clasts found in other meteorite breccias provide insights into the timing of volatile influx to the accretion region of the terrestrial planets.
High-precision double-spike Zr stable isotope measurements (expressed as δ94/90ZrIPGP-Zr, the permil deviation of the 94Zr/90Zr ratio from the IPGP-Zr standard) are presented for a range of ocean island basalts (OIB) and mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) to examine mass-dependent isotopic variations of zirconium in Earth. Ocean island basalt samples, spanning a range of radiogenic isotopic flavours (HIMU, EM) show a limited range in δ94/90ZrIPGP-Zr (0.046 ± 0.037‰; 2sd, n = 13). Similarly, MORB samples with chondrite-normalized La/Sm of >0.7 show a limited range in δ94/90ZrIPGP-Zr (0.053 ± 0.040‰; 2sd, n = 8). In contrast, basaltic lavas from mantle sources that have undergone significant melt depletion, such as depleted normal MORB (N-MORB) show resolvable variations in δ94/90ZrIPGP-Zr, from −0.045 ± 0.018 to 0.074 ± 0.023‰. Highly evolved igneous differentiates (>65 wt% SiO2) from Hekla volcano in Iceland are isotopically heavier than less evolved igneous rocks, up to 0.53‰. These results suggest that both mantle melt depletion and extreme magmatic differentiation leads to resolvable mass-dependent Zr isotope fractionation. We find that this isotopic fractionation is most likely driven by incorporation of light isotopes of Zr within the 8-fold coordinated sites of zircons, driving residual melts, with a lower coordination chemistry, towards heavier values. Using a Rayleigh fractionation model, we suggest a αzircon-melt of 0.9995 based on the whole rock δ94/90ZrIPGP-Zr values of the samples from Hekla volcano (Iceland). Zirconium isotopic fractionation during melt-depletion of the mantle is less well-constrained, but may result from incongruent melting and incorporation of isotopically light Zr in the 8-fold coordinated M2 site of orthopyroxene. Based on these observations lavas originating from the effect of melt extraction from a depleted mantle source (N-MORB) or that underwent zircon saturation (SiO2 > 65 wt%) are removed from the dataset to give an estimate of the primitive mantle Zr isotope composition of 0.048 ± 0.032‰; 2sd, n = 48. These data show that major controls on Zr fractionation in the Earth result from partial melt extraction in the mantle and by zircon fractionation in differentiated melts. Conversely, fertile mantle is homogenous with respect to Zr isotopes. Zirconium mass-dependent fractionation effects can therefore be used to trace large-scale mantle melt depletion events and the effects of felsic crust formation.
