Supplementary Data from Vasoactivity of AG014699, a Clinically Active Small Molecule Inhibitor of Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerase: a Contributory Factor to Chemopotentiation <i>In vivo</i>?
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP) inhibitors (PARPi) exploit tumour-specific defects in homologous recombination DNA repair and continuous dosing is most efficacious. Early clinical trial data with rucaparib suggested that it caused sustained PARP inhibition. Here we investigate the mechanism of this durable inhibition and potential exploitation. Uptake and retention of rucaparib and persistence of PARP inhibition were determined by radiochemical and immunological assays in human cancer cell lines. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of rucaparib were determined in tumour-bearing mice and the efficacy of different schedules of rucaparib was determined in mice bearing homologous recombination DNA repair-defective tumours. Rucaparib accumulation is carrier mediated (Km=8.4±1.2 μ M, Vmax=469±22 pmol per 106 cells per 10 min), reaching steady-state levels >10 times higher than the extracellular concentration within 30 min. Rucaparib is retained in cells and inhibits PARP ⩾50% for ⩾72 h days after a 30-min pulse of 400 nM. In Capan-1 tumour-bearing mice rucaparib accumulated and was retained in the tumours, and PARP was inhibited for 7 days following a single dose of 10 mg kg−1 i.p or 150 mg kg−1 p.o. by 70% and 90%, respectively. Weekly dosing of 150 mg kg−1 p.o once a week was as effective as 10 mg kg−1 i.p daily for five days every week for 6 weeks in delaying Capan-1 tumour growth. Rucaparib accumulates and is retained in tumour cells and inhibits PARP for long periods such that weekly schedules have equivalent anticancer activity to daily dosing in a pre-clinical model, suggesting that clinical evaluation of alternative schedules of rucaparib should be considered.
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) facilitates DNA single-strand break-base excision repair to maintain genomic stability. Inhibition or loss of PARP activity leads to a recombinogenic phenotype characterized by increased sister chromatid exchange. Deficiency in homologous recombination (HR) owing to loss of BRCA1 or BRCA2 is associated with hereditary cancers of the breast, ovary, pancreas and prostate. We investigated the therapeutic potential of PARP inhibitors in HR and BRCA2-defective cells. We exposed cells defective in the HR component XRCC3 (irs1SF) and BRCA2 (V-C8) and their parental (AA8, V79) or deficiency corrected (CXR3, V-C8+B2) cells to the PARP inhibitors NU1025 and AG14361. Mice bearing BRCA2-deficient and BRCA2-proficient tumours were treated with AG14361. All HR-defective cells were hypersensitive to normally non-cytotoxic concentrations of PARP inhibitors. Cells lacking BRCA2 were 20 times more sensitive to PARP inhibitor-induced cytotoxicity. Three out of five BRCA2-defective xenografts responded to the potent PARP inhibitor, AG14361, and one tumour regressed completely, compared with non-responses in the BRCA2-proficient tumours treated with AG14361 or any mice treated with vehicle control. Untreated PARP-1(-/-) mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) accumulated more DNA double-strand breaks than did PARP-1(+/+) MEFs. We believe the underlying cytotoxic mechanism is due to PARP inhibitor-mediated suppression of repair of DNA single-strand breaks, which are converted to DNA double-strand breaks at replication. These replication-associated double-strand breaks, which are normally repaired by HR, become cytotoxic in cells defective in HR. Using a DNA repair inhibitor alone to selectively kill a tumour represents an exciting new concept in cancer therapy.
Abstract Purpose: Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) plays an important role in DNA repair, and PARP inhibitors can enhance the activity of DNA-damaging agents in vitro and in vivo. AG014699 is a potent PARP inhibitor in phase II clinical development. However, the range of therapeutics with which AG014699 could interact via a DNA-repair based mechanism is limited. We aimed to investigate a novel, vascular-based activity of AG014699, underlying in vivo chemosensitization, which could widen its clinical application. Experimental Design: Temozolomide response was analyzed in vitro and in vivo. Vessel dynamics were monitored using “mismatch” following the administration of perfusion markers and real-time analysis of fluorescently labeled albumin uptake in to tumors established in dorsal window chambers. Further mechanistic investigations used ex vivo assays of vascular smooth muscle relaxation, gut motility, and myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) inhibition. Results: AG014699 failed to sensitize SW620 cells to temozolomide in vitro but induced pronounced enhancement in vivo. AG014699 (1 mg/kg) improved tumor perfusion comparably with the control agents nicotinamide (1 g/kg) and AG14361 (forerunner to AG014699; 10 mg/kg). AG014699 and AG14361 relaxed preconstricted vascular smooth muscle more potently than the standard agent, hydralazine, with no impact on gut motility. AG014699 inhibited MLCK at concentrations that relaxed isolated arteries, whereas AG14361 had no effect. Conclusion: Increased vessel perfusion elicited by AG014699 could increase tumor drug accumulation and therapeutic response. Vasoactive concentrations of AG014699 do not cause detrimental side effects to gut motility and may increase the range of therapeutics with which AG014699 could be combined with for clinical benefit. (Clin Cancer Res 2009;15(19):6106–12)
<div>Abstract<p>Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)-1 (EC 2.4.2.30) is a nuclear enzyme that promotes the base excision repair of DNA breaks. Inhibition of PARP-1 enhances the efficacy of DNA alkylating agents, topoisomerase I poisons, and ionizing radiation. Our aim was to identify a PARP inhibitor for clinical trial from a panel of 42 potent PARP inhibitors (<i>K</i><sub>i</sub>, 1.4–15.1 nmol/L) based on the quinazolinone, benzimidazole, tricyclic benzimidazole, tricyclic indole, and tricyclic indole-1-one core structures. We evaluated chemosensitization of temozolomide and topotecan using LoVo and SW620 human colorectal cells; <i>in vitro</i> radiosensitization was measured using LoVo cells, and the enhancement of antitumor activity of temozolomide was evaluated in mice bearing SW620 xenografts. Excellent chemopotentiation and radiopotentiation were observed <i>in vitro</i>, with 17 of the compounds causing a greater temozolomide and topotecan sensitization than the benchmark inhibitor AG14361 and 10 compounds were more potent radiosensitizers than AG14361. In tumor-bearing mice, none of the compounds were toxic when given alone, and the antitumor activity of the PARP inhibitor-temozolomide combinations was unrelated to toxicity. Compounds that were more potent chemosensitizers <i>in vivo</i> than AG14361 were also more potent <i>in vitro</i>, validating <i>in vitro</i> assays as a prescreen. These studies have identified a compound, AG14447, as a PARP inhibitor with outstanding <i>in vivo</i> chemosensitization potency at tolerable doses, which is at least 10 times more potent than the initial lead, AG14361. The phosphate salt of AG14447 (AG014699), which has improved aqueous solubility, has been selected for clinical trial. [Mol Cancer Ther 2007;6(3):945–56]</p></div>
Potent poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors have been developed that potentiate the cytotoxicity of ionizing radiation and anticancer drugs. The biological effects of two novel PARP inhibitors, NU1025 (8-hydroxy-2-methylquinazolin-4-[3H]one, Ki = 48 nM) and NU1085 [2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)benzamidazole-4-carboxamide, Ki = 6 nM], in combination with temozolomide (TM) or topotecan (TP) have been studied in 12 human tumor cell lines (lung, colon, ovary, and breast cancer). Cells were treated with increasing concentrations of TM or TP +/- NU1025 (50, 200 microM) or NU1085 (10 microM) for 72 h. The potentiation of growth inhibition by NU1025 and NU1085 varied between the cell lines from 1.5- to 4-fold for TM and 1- to 5-fold for TP and was unaffected by p53 status. Clonogenic assays undertaken in two of the cell lines confirmed that the potentiation of growth inhibition reflected the potentiation of cytotoxicity. NU1025 (50 microM) was about as effective as 10 microM NU1085 at potentiating growth inhibition and cytotoxicity, consistent with the relative potencies of the two molecules as PARP inhibitors. Potentiation of cytotoxicity was obtained at concentrations of NU1025 and NU1085 that were not toxic per se; however, NU1085 alone was 3-fold more cytotoxic (LC50 values ranged from 83 to 94 microM) than NU1025 alone (LC50 > 900 microM). These data demonstrate that PARP inhibitors are effective resistance-modifying agents in human tumor cell lines and have provided a comprehensive assessment protocol for the selection of optimum combinations of anticancer drugs, PARP inhibitors, and cell lines for in vivo studies.
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