The article addresses a practical problem in the teaching of a particular sub-theme in Tanzania’s secondary school History syllabus, namely age-set systems in pre-colonial Tanzania. Based on their reading of the school syllabus, textbooks and other reference materials, the authors submit that the contents of this sub-theme are sometimes wrongly perceived and presented. According to the authors, the problem partly arises from confusions arising from failure to distinguish age-set systems from generation-set systems. Hence, the authors set out to examine how age-sets and generation-sets were formed, how they worked, and the extent to which they influenced socio-economic and political developments in societies where these systems existed. Drawing examples from Kuria, Kipsigis, Maasai, Pokot and Karamajong communities of East Africa, the authors conclude that there are notable errors in textbook sections that present these systems, and that there is no standard definition that fits the characteristics of these systems across all the ethnic groups in which the systems existed. They also argue that, contrary to what the textbooks say, age-set and generation-set systems are not post-colonial phenomena only, as they continued to exist and function in post-colonial societies.
Kuria people, who straddle both sides of the Kenya–Tanzania border, have experienced interminable intra- and inter-ethnic warfare emanating from cattle rustling. The Kuria people are stereotypically described as cantankerous and indisposed to compromise or forgiveness when they have been wronged. But on the contrary, archival and secondary information as well as oral interviews conducted in the region demonstrate that through participation in different ritual forms, the Kuria people themselves have been responsible for maintaining harmony and serenity with their neighbours. Kuria who abide by their cultural beliefs, social norms, and respect for traditional leadership, do forgive, regularly initiate reconciliations, and actively maintain peaceful relations through participation in various ritual forms. It is evident that rituals constitute an integral part of the customary process of conflict resolution and peace building among the Kuria. Especially those rituals related to the prevention of cattle rustling have gained recognition and formal support of the central states on both sides of the border, to the extent that the powers embodied in these traditional Kuria rituals have sometimes overridden the jurisdiction of modern courts established in the Kuria areas.
During the colonial and postcolonial periods, African states, including Tanzania, introduced detention without trial and deportation of some people as a strategy for maintaining peace and security. The assumption was that detainees and deportees threatened peace in their respective areas, that their detention and deportation would bring peace and stability, and that eventually they would change their behaviour and become good citizens. To respond to this perceived threat, the colonial and postcolonial governments enacted laws at different intervals from the 1920s to the 1990s. Several people were detained and deported in Tanzania under these laws. Using archival sources, documentary review, newspapers and oral information, this article examines the extent to which detention and deportation helped to maintain peace and security as well as change the behaviours of those who were detained and deported among the Kuria in Tanzania. It argues that the detention and deportation strategy created a peaceful environment temporarily but rarely changed the behaviour of the deportees and detainees. Unlike other places where detention and deportation were used to silence political elites who opposed the existing regimes, the detention and deportation strategy among the Kuria mainly targeted notorious cattle raiders whose undertakings instigated inter-clan conflicts. ‘Tunakuweka Kizuizini kwa Usalama wako na Usalama wa Taifa’ (We detain you for your security and the security of the nation)
Tanzania is one of the countries in sub-Saharan Africa which has great number of conserved and protected areas, and aspires to protect more areas. However, there is a growing concern among Tanzania’s people who live around conserved areas that their rights to access land and other natural resources around is being impinged. As a result, conflicts emerge between local people and those who call themselves 'conservationists'. Increase of population of both human beings and wild animals continues to aggravate the problem. In light of that thinking, this paper examines game conservation policies and their far-reaching implications on human relations and access to land in Mara region. The main assumption is that changes of land use from human settlement, grazing, cultivation and hunting land to game reserves and controlled areas creates pressure on the meagre remaining land surface. This situation, in turn, affects the pre-existing human relations and the future prospects of the surrounding communities. The paper builds its analysis from both secondary and primary sources such as review of books and journal articles, archival research and oral in-depth interviews conducted in the area. The findings show that conservation practices in Tanzania prioritize animal rights at the expense of human population thereby creating dilemma on human relations and survival. Finally, the paper reveals that there has been an emerging trend for conservation for the interest of the foreign investors; that investors and some government officials benefit more than the local community around.
Indigenous and state-designed (the Westphalian) approaches to conflict management and peacebuilding have attracted the attention of many scholars in the world. However, there is a debate regarding the use of the two approaches in managing and resolving ethnic conflicts in Africa. Some scholars argue that indigenous approaches to conflict management and resolutions have great potential for building peace in Africa. Others view African indigenous approaches to conflict management and peacebuilding as being ineffective and limited and that those conflicts may only be resolved using approaches that are designed by states and are western oriented. Amidst this debate is a call by some scholars for synergy between indigenous and state-designed approaches. Drawing evidence from the Kuria community, which straddles both sides of the Tanzania – Kenya border, this chapter examines the evolution of the two approaches, their effectiveness, and how they can be integrated to ensure sustainable peace in African communities. The chapter relies on secondary, archival, and oral sources collected both in Kenya and Tanzania. It argues that indigenous and state-designed approaches should not be used independently. Instead, African states should develop policies that allow the two approaches to have a mutual relationship in the process of building sustainable peace.
This paper examines the impacts of MAUMAU in Tanzania. MAUMAU is a popular concept which has been widely used to denote nationalistic movements in Kenya in the period from the early 1940s to the late 1950s. However, scholars who have studied MAUMAU confined their thought to what actually happened in Kenya and hardly thought that MAUMAU transcended the borders of Kenya, and were felt in neighbouring territories such as Tanzania. Using secondary, archival, newspapers and oral sources collected from different parts of Tanzania, I argue that MAUMAU movement created tensions in Tanzania as well, and manifested into relocation of some Kenyans, creation of new histories, identities and developments into Tanzania. Such history can help to understand the presence of some Kenyans in Tanzania and strengthen inter-community relations among members of Tanzania and Kenya states.
This paper examines the emergence of the Kipsigis ethnic group and their ensuing ethnic identity in Trans-Mara District in Kenya. It relies on secondary, archival and oral sources collected in Kenya and Tanzania between October 2012 and December 2013. Based on those sources, the paper shows that the Kipsigis who are sometimes called the ‘Lumbwa’ are part of a large group of people called the Kelenjin which have been in Kenya for more than seven centuries. It further shows that the Kipsigis have stayed in Trans-Mara District for less than seven centuries; they have actually been there for about seventy-five years only. The paper argues that the emergence of Kipsigis ethnic group and identity is a result of the influence of both the colonial and post-colonial states as well as the politics that have been taking place in the area. The Kipsigis identity and consciousness manifested itself in political violence and division of the Trans-Mara District into two ethnically based districts: East for the Kipsigis and West for the Maasai. The paper concludes that ethnic identity, consciousness and sentiments are increasing tremendously in Trans-Mara as is the case in other parts of Kenya. This state of affairs threatens the unity of Kenya as a nation. Keywords : Kenya, Kipsigis, Maasai, identity, Trans-Mara District Iddy R. Magoti, Lecturer, University of Dar es Salaam; Email : iramagoti@yahoo.com
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