COVID-19 is infrequently complicated by bacterial co-infection, but antibiotic prescriptions are common. We used community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) as a benchmark to define the processes that occur in bacterial pulmonary infections, testing the hypothesis that baseline inflammatory markers and their response to antibiotic therapy could distinguish bacterial co-infection from COVID-19.Retrospective cohort study of CAP (lobar consolidation on chest radiograph) and COVID-19 (PCR detection of SARS-CoV-2) patients admitted to Royal Free Hospital (RFH) and Barnet Hospital (BH), serving as independent discovery and validation cohorts. All CAP and >90% COVID-19 patients received antibiotics on hospital admission.We identified 106 CAP and 619 COVID-19 patients at RFH. Compared with COVID-19, CAP was characterized by elevated baseline white cell count (WCC) [median 12.48 (IQR 8.2-15.3) versus 6.78 (IQR 5.2-9.5) ×106 cells/mL, P < 0.0001], C-reactive protein (CRP) [median 133.5 (IQR 65-221) versus 86.0 (IQR 42-160) mg/L, P < 0.0001], and greater reduction in CRP 48-72 h into admission [median ΔCRP -33 (IQR -112 to +3.5) versus +14 (IQR -15.5 to +70.5) mg/L, P < 0.0001]. These observations were recapitulated in the independent validation cohort at BH (169 CAP and 181 COVID-19 patients). A multivariate logistic regression model incorporating WCC and ΔCRP discriminated CAP from COVID-19 with AUC 0.88 (95% CI 0.83-0.94). Baseline WCC >8.2 × 106 cells/mL or falling CRP identified 94% of CAP cases, and excluded bacterial co-infection in 46% of COVID-19 patients.We propose that in COVID-19, absence of both elevated baseline WCC and antibiotic-related decrease in CRP can exclude bacterial co-infection and facilitate antibiotic stewardship efforts.
In this Journal, Rossotti and colleagues provided early data on tocilizumab utility in COVID-191Rossotti R. Travi G. Ughi N. et al.Safety and efficacy of anti-il6-receptor tocilizumab use in severe and critical patients affected by coronavirus disease 2019: a comparative analysis.J Infect. 2020; 81: e11-e17https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.07.008Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar, later confirmed in randomised studies2RECOVERY Collaborative GroupTocilizumab in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial.Lancet. 2021; 397: 1637-1645https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00676-0Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1192) Google Scholar. Tocilizumab-mediated inhibition of IL-6 signalling can decrease CRP concentrations1Rossotti R. Travi G. Ughi N. et al.Safety and efficacy of anti-il6-receptor tocilizumab use in severe and critical patients affected by coronavirus disease 2019: a comparative analysis.J Infect. 2020; 81: e11-e17https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.07.008Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar, potentially confounding the diagnosis of bacterial co-infections in COVID-19 that occur more frequently following longer hospital stays and admissions to the intensive care unit (ICU)3Langford B.J. So M. Raybardhan S. et al.Bacterial co-infection and secondary infection in patients with COVID-19: a living rapid review and meta-analysis.Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020; 26: 1622-1629https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.07.016Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (916) Google Scholar, 4Russell C.D. Fairfield C.J. Drake T.M. et al.Co-infections, secondary infections, and antimicrobial use in patients hospitalised with COVID-19 during the first pandemic wave from the ISARIC WHO CCP-UK study: a multicentre, prospective cohort study.Lancet Microbe. June 2021; https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-5247(21)00090-2Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar, 5Mason C.Y. Kanitkar T. Richardson C.J. et al.Exclusion of bacterial co-infection in COVID-19 using baseline inflammatory markers and their response to antibiotics.J Antimicrob Chemother. January 2021; https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkaa563Crossref PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar. In inflammatory arthritides, serial tocilizumab dosing variably attenuates CRP responses following bacterial infections6Lang V.R. Englbrecht M. Rech J. et al.Risk of infections in rheumatoid arthritis patients treated with tocilizumab.Rheumatology (Oxford). 2012; 51: 852-857https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/ker223Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar, but the effect following single-dose use in COVID-19 is not defined2RECOVERY Collaborative GroupTocilizumab in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial.Lancet. 2021; 397: 1637-1645https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00676-0Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1192) Google Scholar,7Bell L.C.K. Meydan C. Kim J. et al.Transcriptional response modules characterize IL-1β and IL-6 activity in COVID-19.iScience. 2021; 24101896https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.101896Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar. In a small COVID-19 cohort with blood stream infections (BSIs) that had received tocilizumab, CRP was reduced but remained detectable at the time of BSI diagnosis8Giacobbe D.R. Battaglini D. Ball L. et al.Bloodstream infections in critically ill patients with COVID-19.Eur J Clin Invest. 2020; 50: e13319https://doi.org/10.1111/eci.13319Crossref PubMed Scopus (194) Google Scholar. However, CRP kinetics related to BSI were not assessed, and thus the utility of CRP to guide antibiotic prescribing in this context remains unknown5Mason C.Y. Kanitkar T. Richardson C.J. et al.Exclusion of bacterial co-infection in COVID-19 using baseline inflammatory markers and their response to antibiotics.J Antimicrob Chemother. January 2021; https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkaa563Crossref PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar,9Seaton R.A. Gibbons C.L. Cooper L. et al.Survey of antibiotic and antifungal prescribing in patients with suspected and confirmed COVID-19 in Scottish hospitals.J Infect. 2020; 81: 952-960https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.09.024Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar. We addressed this question by testing the hypothesis that a single dose of tocilizumab for COVID-19 retained CRP responses to bacterial infections, as modelled by BSIs. We identified patients admitted to Royal Free Hospital (RFH) between 01/03/2020 and 01/02/2021, aged >18 years and diagnosed with COVID-19 by RT-PCR detection of SARS-CoV-2 from nasopharyngeal swabs. Tocilizumab use originated from routine clinical care delivery or randomised clinical trials after unblinding. COVID-19 associated BSIs were defined by isolation in blood cultures of any bacteria, excluding coagulase negative staphylococci, between 14 days prior to and 60 days after COVID-19 diagnosis. We excluded patients that developed BSIs prior to receiving tocilizumab. To assess dynamic CRP responses, we included only patients with blood parameter measurements performed at least 3 days prior to the onset of BSIs. Clinical, laboratory and drug data extraction, and statistical analyses were performed as previously described5Mason C.Y. Kanitkar T. Richardson C.J. et al.Exclusion of bacterial co-infection in COVID-19 using baseline inflammatory markers and their response to antibiotics.J Antimicrob Chemother. January 2021; https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkaa563Crossref PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar. The study was approved by the Research and Innovation Group at RFH, which stated that as this was a retrospective review of routine clinical data, formal ethics approval was not required. Within the COVID-19 patients that met our inclusion criteria, 107 had received tocilizumab, 17 of whom then developed a BSI during their hospital admission (Table 1). A separate cohort of 55 COVID-19 patients developed a BSI but had not received tocilizumab (Table 1). Tocilizumab use preceding BSIs was more commonly associated with ICU admission, but the BSI organisms were comparable between the groups (Table 1). In the first week after tocilizumab administration we observed a rapid fall in CRP (Fig. 1A), but not for total white cell, neutrophil or lymphocyte counts (Fig. 1A & fig S1). The CRP reduction following tocilizumab was short lived, with CRP concentrations rising within 21 days of tocilizumab receipt (Fig. 1A). To exclude confounding by bacterial co-infection, a sensitivity analysis on 90 patients that did not develop a BSI following tocilizumab also showed an early reduction followed by a rebound in CRP (fig S2A). A similar pattern was evident in patients that developed a BSI, although CRP concentrations showed less attenuation and greater heterogeneity within the 21-day period since tocilizumab administration (fig S2B).Table 1Baseline demographics and clinical characteristics for patients included in the study.No BSI & received tocilizumab(n = 90)BSI & received tocilizumab(n = 17)BSI & did not receive tocilizumab(n = 55)p value*relates to statistical comparison between COVID-19 patients who did or did not receive tocilizumab prior to the onset of BSI. Mann–Whitney test was used to compare age, Fisher's exact test was used to compare gender and microbiology results, and Chi-square test was used to compare ethnicity and Charlson co-morbidities.Age, years, median (range)63 (28–90)61 (50–78)63 (31–100)p = 0.383Gender, n (%)MaleFemale56 (62)34 (38)9 (53)8 (47)38 (69)17 (31)p = 0.253Ethnicity, n (%)WhiteBlackAsianMixedOther33 (42)7 (9)15 (19)2 (3)21 (27)4 (31)3 (23)4 (31)1 (8)1 (8)27 (55)7 (14)7 (14)0 (0)8 (16)p = 0.101Charlson co-morbidity score, n (%)0123+57 (63)25 (28)6 (7)2 (2)4 (24)11 (65)1 (6)1 (6)27 (49)17 (31)7 (13)4 (7)p = 0.095ICU admission, n (%)YesNo52 (58)38 (42)17 (100)0 (0)39 (72)15 (28)p = 0.015Corticosteroid use, n (%)YesNo79 (89)10 (11)15 (88)2 (12)35 (65)19 (35)p = 0.076BSI organism, n (%)Gram-negative bacilliEnterococcus sp.Staphylococcus aureusOtherN/A10 (40)2 (8)4 (16)1 (4)32 (62)12 (23)7 (13)1 (2)p = 0.507BSI = blood stream infection. relates to statistical comparison between COVID-19 patients who did or did not receive tocilizumab prior to the onset of BSI. Mann–Whitney test was used to compare age, Fisher's exact test was used to compare gender and microbiology results, and Chi-square test was used to compare ethnicity and Charlson co-morbidities. Open table in a new tab BSI = blood stream infection. To test the hypothesis that CRP would rise following a BSI independent of prior tocilizumab administration, we compared CRP responses in 17 patients that had received tocilizumab prior to a BSI with 55 patients who had not received tocilizumab. Strikingly, in both cohorts, BSIs resulted in clear CRP elevations (Figs. 1B & 1C). We calculated the change in CRP across the time of BSI onset to quantitatively compare this CRP rise. As blood samples were not collected daily in all patients, we derived paired sampling by calculating maximal CRP values 2 or 3 days prior to BSI-detecting blood culture collection and maximal CRP up to 2 days after BSI. This approach revealed an increase in CRP following BSI in 76.5% and 75.0% of patients that had or had not received tocilizumab respectively (Fig. 1D). Moreover, there was no difference in CRP increase between the groups (median CRP change +88 mg/L vs +76 mg/L respectively, p = 0.67 by Mann-Whitney test). As patients developed BSIs at varying times following receipt of tocilizumab, we tested the hypothesis that BSI-induced CRP increment would be proportional to the time interval between tocilizumab administration and BSI onset. However, in the 17 patients that both received tocilizumab and subsequently developed a BSI, no relationship was observed between the length of the tocilizumab-BSI interval and the change in CRP (r = 0.1069, p = 0.6811 by Rank-spearman correlation) (Fig. 1E). By inhibiting IL-6 signalling, tocilizumab may impact CRP-guided antibiotic prescribing decisions5Mason C.Y. Kanitkar T. Richardson C.J. et al.Exclusion of bacterial co-infection in COVID-19 using baseline inflammatory markers and their response to antibiotics.J Antimicrob Chemother. January 2021; https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkaa563Crossref PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar,9Seaton R.A. Gibbons C.L. Cooper L. et al.Survey of antibiotic and antifungal prescribing in patients with suspected and confirmed COVID-19 in Scottish hospitals.J Infect. 2020; 81: 952-960https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.09.024Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar. However, we demonstrate that prior administration of a single dose of tocilizumab does not attenuate CRP responses following a BSI, retaining the utility of this biomarker to diagnose bacterial co-infections associated with COVID-19. These findings have important implications for tocilizumab-treated COVID-19 patients: first, clinically-indicated antibiotic prescriptions are unlikely to be delayed, and second, low CRP levels alone are not an indication for continued prescription of unnecessary antibiotics, supporting stewardship efforts. Nevertheless, BSI onset did not initiate CRP elevations in all patients, irrespective of prior tocilizumab use, emphasising that CRP is only one contributor to diagnosing incipient bacterial infections. Despite preserved CRP responses to BSI, tocilizumab transiently reduced baseline CRP levels, mostly recovering within 21 days. Furthermore, BSI-associated CRP increments were unrelated to time since tocilizumab, indicating that single tocilizumab dosing may not completely neutralise IL-6 responses10Spencer S. Köstel Bal S. Egner W. et al.Loss of the interleukin-6 receptor causes immunodeficiency, atopy, and abnormal inflammatory responses.J Exp Med. 2019; 216: 1986-1998https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20190344Crossref PubMed Scopus (136) Google Scholar, although a role for IL-6-independent CRP stimuli cannot be excluded. Measuring IL-6 signalling activity in vivo may predict attenuation of CRP responses and also inform the need for further tocilizumab dosing in COVID-197Bell L.C.K. Meydan C. Kim J. et al.Transcriptional response modules characterize IL-1β and IL-6 activity in COVID-19.iScience. 2021; 24101896https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.101896Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar. Our study was limited by its single-centre and retrospective nature, constraining patient numbers and negating correction for potential confounders. Nevertheless, increased frequency of corticosteroid use in tocilizumab recipients could have further attenuated CRP responses, counter to our observations. BSIs provided a standardised definition for bacterial infections, but limited extrapolation to non-BSI settings, an area of required future work to confirm the generalisability of our findings. In conclusion, we show that tocilizumab use in severe COVID-19 preserves elevations in CRP concentration following the onset of a confirmed bacterial co-infection, as modelled by BSIs. Use of tocilizumab should not negate judicious, CRP-guided use of antibiotics in COVID-19. EQW, IB, SB and GP conceived the study. EQW, CB, AN, BOF, JP, ML, SY, SH, DM, MS and GP collected and analysed the data. EQW, SB and GP drafted the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. We declare that all authors have no conflicts of interest No external funding supported this work.
In patients with Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis (SBP), acute kidney injury and high serum bilirubin are known predictors of in-hospital mortality. The effect of patient management on mortality is unknown. This study aims to identify predictors of in-hospital mortality, accounting for management of patients with SBP, according to EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines published in 2010.
Methods
Clinico-demographic, biochemical and microbiological data from patients presenting between 2014 and 2019, with a first episode of SBP (ascitic fluid neutrophil count > 250 cell/cm³) were reviewed. The primary endpoint was in-hospital mortality. Logistic regression was used to identify predictors of outcome.
Results
Overall, 130 patients (median [IQR] age 58 [51 - 66] yr; 65% male; aetiology: alcohol 36%; MELD score 18 [13 - 25]) were included. Infection was nosocomial in 49%; 35 had concomitant bacteraemia (n = 14), respiratory (n = 16) or urinary infections (n = 9). Pathogens were identified in 57 (44%) patients within 42 [36 – 50] hr post initial ascitic tap; antibiotic sensitivities were available by 53 [49 – 62] hr. Multidrug resistant pathogens (MDRP) were identified in 12 (21%) of the 57; 10 of the 12 showed < 25% reduction in ascitic neutrophil count at 48 hours. There were 29 (22.3%) in-hospital deaths; the median time to death was 6 [1 – 8] days. A total of 31 (24%) patients were admitted to ITU and one-third (n = 13) of this cohort died. One patient underwent liver transplantation. On univariate analysis, admission MELD, peripheral white cell count, INR, serum creatinine, failure to culture a pathogen, failure to perform a 48-hour ascitic tap and development of acute kidney injury were predictors of in-hospital mortality. Age, nosocomial infection or the presence of a MDRP were not. Failure to perform a 48-hour ascitic tap (OR [95% CI] = 11.2 [2.9 – 43.7], p < 0.01), acute kidney injury (9.1 [2.0 – 41.5], p < 0.01) and MELD score (1.2 [1.1 – 1.3], p < 0.01) retained significance on multivariate analysis.
Conclusions
In-hospital mortality associated with SPB is unacceptably high at 22%. Failure to repeat the ascitic tap at 48 hours, a recommendation based solely on expert opinion in the EASL guideline, was a highly significant prognostic factor allowing early identification of patients who fail to respond to empirical antibiotic therapy. This requirement should now become recommended practice.
Abstract Background COVID-19 is infrequently complicated by secondary bacterial infection, but nevertheless antibiotic prescriptions are common. We used community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) as a benchmark to define the processes that occur in a bacterial pulmonary infection, and tested the hypothesis that baseline inflammatory markers and their response to antibiotic therapy could distinguish CAP from COVID-19. Methods In patients admitted to Royal Free Hospital (RFH) and Barnet Hospital (BH) we defined CAP by lobar consolidation on chest radiograph, and COVID-19 by SARS-CoV-2 detection by PCR. Data were derived from routine laboratory investigations. Results On admission all CAP and >90% COVID-19 patients received antibiotics. We identified 106 CAP and 619 COVID-19 patients at RFH. CAP was characterised by elevated white cell count (WCC) and C-reactive protein (CRP) compared to COVID-19 (median WCC 12.48 (IQR 8.2-15.3) vs 6.78 (IQR 5.2-9.5) x10 6 cells/ml and median CRP CRP 133.5 (IQR 65-221) vs 86 (IQR 42-160) mg/L). Blood samples collected 48-72 hours into admission revealed decreasing CRP in CAP but not COVID-19 (CRP difference −33 (IQR −112 to +3.5) vs +15 (IQR −15 to +70) mg/L respectively). In the independent validation cohort (BH) consisting of 169 CAP and 181 COVID-19 patients, admission WCC >8.2×10 6 cells/ml or falling CRP during admission identified 95% of CAP cases, and predicted the absence of bacterial co-infection in 45% of COVID-19 patients. Conclusions We propose that in COVID-19 the absence of both elevated baseline WCC and antibiotic-related decrease in CRP can exclude bacterial co-infection and facilitate antibiotic stewardship efforts.
Abstract Background A patient with an extensively drug‐resistant (XDR) New Delhi metallo‐β‐lactamase (NDM) and oxacillinase (OXA‐48) producing Escherichia coli (E. coli ) infection was awaiting orthotopic liver transplant. There is no standardized antibiotic prophylaxis regimen; however, in line with the Infectious Diseases Society of America guidance, an antibiotic prophylactic regimen of ceftazidime‐avibactam 2.5 g TDS with aztreonam 2 g three times a day (TDS) IV was proposed. Methods The hollow fiber system (HFS) was applied to inform the individualized pharmacodynamic outcome likelihood prior to prophylaxis. Results A 4‐log reduction in CFU/mL in the first 10 h of the regimen exposure was observed; however, the killing dynamics were slow and six 8‐hourly infusions were required to reduce bacterial cells to below the limit of quantification. Thus, the HFS supported the use of the regimen for infection clearance; however, it highlighted the need for several infusions. Standard local practice is to administer prophylaxis antibiotics at induction of orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT); however, the HFS provided data to rationalize earlier dosing. Therefore, the patient was dosed at 24 h prior to their OLT induction and subsequently discharged 8 days after surgery. Conclusion The HFS provides a dynamic culture solution for informing individualized medicine by testing antibiotic combinations and exposures against the bacterial isolates cultured from the patient's infection. image .
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