Moringa oleifera Lam. (moringa hereafter) is cultivated as a new summer super-forage field crop in Israel, yet no weed control protocol has been developed for it. The objective of the study was to develop an integrated weed management (IWM) practice for the moringa agro-system in arid and semi-arid regions like the Mediterranean basin. We tested various herbicides applied pre (PRE) and post (POST) crop emergence and cultivation methods for weed control, with an emphasis on crop safety. The PRE herbicides were the most effective and safe control mean. Their application resulted in minor (<5%) crop fresh weight reductions and weed cover area, compared with the control. The POST herbicides were also effective, yet their crop safety level was lower and non-consistent in some treatments. Generally, the finger weeder was less effective than the herbicide treatments and caused higher fresh weight reduction. However, this means was more effective when applied at earlier stages. Management and environmental conditions had a high impact on the moringa growth; hence, these aspects should be considered. Our results show the potential use of different herbicides and non-chemical tools and set the basis for a future IWM protocol for moringa. The wide range of options offered here can ensure economic and environmentally viable solutions for this new crop.
Anthocyanins are important dietary and health-promoting substances present in high quantities in the peel and arils of the pomegranate ( Punica granatum L.) fruit. Yet, there is a high variation in the content of anthocyanin among different pomegranate varieties. The ‘Black’ pomegranate variety (P.G.127-28) found in Israel contains exceptionally high levels of anthocyanins in its fruit peel which can reach up to two orders of magnitude higher content as compared to that of other pomegranate varieties’ peel anthocyanins. Biochemical analysis reveals that delphinidin is highly abundant in the peel of ‘Black’ variety. The pattern of anthocyanin accumulation in the fruit peel during fruit development of ‘Black’ variety differs from that of other pomegranates. High anthocyanin levels are maintained during all developmental stages. Moreover, the accumulation of anthocyanin in the fruit peel of ‘Black’ variety is not dependent on light. Genetic analysis of an F 2 population segregating for the “black” phenotype reveals that it is determined by a single recessive gene. Genetic mapping of the F 2 population using single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers identified few markers tightly linked to the “black” phenotype. Recombination analysis of the F 2 population and F 3 populations narrowed the “black” trait to an area of 178.5 kb on the draft genome sequence of pomegranate cv . ‘Dabenzi.’ A putative anthocyanidin reductase ( ANR ) gene is located in this area. Only pomegranate varieties displaying the “black” trait carry a base pair deletion toward the end of the gene, causing a frame shift resulting in a shorter protein. We propose that this mutation in the ANR gene is responsible for the different anthocyanin composition and high anthocyanin levels of the “black” trait in pomegranate.
Color is an important determinant of pomegranate fruit quality and commercial value. To understand the genetic factors controlling color in pomegranate, chemical, molecular and genetic characterization of a "white" pomegranate was performed. This unique accession is lacking the typical pomegranate color rendered by anthocyanins in all tissues of the plant, including flowers, fruit (skin and arils) and leaves. Steady-state gene-expression analysis indicated that none of the analyzed "white" pomegranate tissues are able to synthesize mRNA corresponding to the PgLDOX gene (leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase, also called ANS, anthocyanidin synthase), which is one of the central structural genes in the anthocyanin-biosynthesis pathway. HPLC analysis revealed that none of the "white" pomegranate tissues accumulate anthocyanins, whereas other flavonoids, corresponding to biochemical reactions upstream of LDOX, were present. Molecular analysis of the "white" pomegranate revealed the presence of an insertion and an SNP within the coding region of PgLDOX. It was found that the SNP does not change amino acid sequence and is not fully linked with the "white" phenotype in all pomegranate accessions from the collection. On the other hand, genotyping of pomegranate accessions from the collection and segregating populations for the "white" phenotype demonstrated its complete linkage with the insertion, inherited as a recessive single-gene trait. Taken together, the results indicate that the insertion in PgLDOX is responsible for the "white" anthocyanin-less phenotype. These data provide the first direct molecular, genetic and chemical evidence for the effect of a natural modification in the LDOX gene on color accumulation in a fruit-bearing woody perennial deciduous tree. This modification can be further utilized to elucidate the physiological role of anthocyanins in protecting the tree organs from harmful environmental conditions, such as temperature and UV radiation.
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