Kawasaki syndrome (KS) is characterized by diffuse vasculitis and marked T cell and B cell activation. In this study, sera from 16 patients with acute KS, 15 patients in the convalescent phase of KS, and 19 age-matched controls were assessed for complement dependent cytotoxic activity against 111In-labeled human umbilical vein endothelial (HUVE) cells, Neither sera from patients with KS nor sera from controls had cytotoxic effects on HUVE cells cultivated under standard conditions. Since activated T cells such as those present in acute KS secrete gamma interferon (gamma-IFN), we also examined the effects of sera from acute KS on HUVE cells preincubated with gamma-IFN. We report here that immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies in sera from patients with acute KS cause significant (P less than 0.01) killing of gamma-IFN-treated HUVE cells. Pretreatment with interleukin 2, gamma-IFN, or beta-IFN failed to render HUVE susceptible to lysis with acute KS sera. The observed effects were not mediated via immune complexes. The cytotoxic antibodies in acute KS seem to be directed against inducible monomorphic antigenic determinants present on gamma-IFN-treated HUVE cells but not on control or gamma-IFN treated autologous human dermal fibroblasts (HDF). Similarly, acute KS sera also induced lysis of gamma-IFN-treated human saphenous vein endothelial (HSVE) cells but not gamma-IFN treated human saphenous vein smooth muscle (HSVSM) cells. Since gamma-IFN induces the same level of class I and class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigen expression on HDF, HUVE, HSVE, and HSVSM cells, our results suggest that the anti-endothelial cell antibodies in acute KS are directed to gamma-IFN-inducible molecules other than MHC determinants. These observations are further substantiated by the failure of human B cells or monocytes to absorb the anti-endothelial cell activity. Since most vasculitides, including acute KS, are characterized both by marked immune activation and the secretion of lymphokines, antibodies directed to gamma-IFN-inducible endothelial cell antigens may represent a general mechanism for vascular injury.
Directed delivery of EGF receptor (EGFR) ligands to the apical or basolateral surface is a crucial regulatory step in the initiation of EGFR signaling in polarized epithelial cells. Herein, we show that the EGFR ligand, betacellulin (BTC), is preferentially sorted to the basolateral surface of polarized MDCK cells. By sequential truncations and site-directed mutagenesis within the BTC cytoplasmic domain, combined with selective cell-surface biotinylation and immunofluorescence, we have uncovered a monoleucine-based basolateral sorting motif (EEXXXL:E156EMETL). Disruption of this sorting motif led to equivalent apical and basolateral localization of BTC. Unlike other EGFR ligands, BTC mistrafficking induced formation of lateral lumens in polarized MDCK cells, and this process was significantly attenuated by EGFR inhibition. Additionally, expression of a cancer-associated somatic BTC mutation (E156K) also led to BTC mistrafficking and induced lateral lumens in MDCK cells. Overexpression of BTC, especially mistrafficking forms, increased the growth of MDCK cells. These results uncover a unique role for BTC mistrafficking in promoting epithelial reorganization.
The Rab11 Family Interacting Proteins (Rab11-FIPs) are hypothesized to regulate sequential steps in the apical recycling and transcytotic pathways of polarized epithelial cells. Previous studies have suggested that Rab11-FIP proteins assemble into multi-protein complexes regulating plasma membrane recycling. Rab11-FIP2 interacts with both myosin Vb and Rab11. Recent investigations have noted that that Rab11-FIP2 mutants [Rab11-FIP2(129-512), also designated Rab11-FIP2(ΔC2) and Rab11-FIP2(S229A, R413G), also designated Rab11-FIP2(SARG)], are potent inhibitors of transcytosis in polarized MDCK cells. Interestingly, Rab11-FIP2(ΔC2), but not Rab11-FIP2(SARG), also altered the morphology of the EEA-1 positive early endosomal compartment. These findings suggested that Rab11-FIP2 mutants could differentiate different points along the recycling pathway. We therefore sought to investigate whether Rab11-FIP2 is a general regulator of the early endosomal system. Both Rab11-FIP2 mutants altered the localization and co-localized with dynein heavy chain. In contrast, both clathrin heavy chain and AP-1 accumulated with membranes containing Rab11-FIP2(SARG), but not with Rab11-FIP2(ΔC2). Expression of Rab11-FIP2(ΔC2), but not Rab11-FIP2(SARG), caused clustering of early endosomal markers Rab5b, Epsin 4 and IQGAP1, around a collapsed Rab11-FIP2 containing membranous cisternum. Interestingly, neither Rab11-FIP2 mutant had any effect on the distribution of Rab5a, a classical early endosome marker. The results support the view that Rab11-FIP2 may influence microtubule-dependent centripetal movement of subsets of early endosomes as well as processing through the common and recycling endosomal systems.
Clostridium difficile is the most common cause of antibiotic-associated nosocomial infection in the United States. C. difficile secretes two homologous toxins, TcdA and TcdB, which are responsible for the symptoms of C. difficile associated disease. The mechanism of toxin action includes an autoprocessing event where a cysteine protease domain (CPD) releases a glucosyltransferase domain (GTD) into the cytosol. The GTD acts to modify and inactivate Rho-family GTPases. The presumed importance of autoprocessing in toxicity, and the apparent specificity of the CPD active site make it, potentially, an attractive target for small molecule drug discovery. In the course of exploring this potential, we have discovered that both wild-type TcdB and TcdB mutants with impaired autoprocessing or glucosyltransferase activities are able to induce rapid, necrotic cell death in HeLa and Caco-2 epithelial cell lines. The concentrations required to induce this phenotype correlate with pathology in a porcine colonic explant model of epithelial damage. We conclude that autoprocessing and GTD release is not required for epithelial cell necrosis and that targeting the autoprocessing activity of TcdB for the development of novel therapeutics will not prevent the colonic tissue damage that occurs in C. difficile – associated disease.
Microvillus inclusion disease (MVID) is a severe form of congenital diarrhea that arises from inactivating mutations in the gene encoding myosin Vb (MYO5B). We have examined the association of mutations in MYO5B and disruption of microvillar assembly and polarity in enterocytes. Stable MYO5B knockdown (MYO5B-KD) in CaCo2-BBE cells elicited loss of microvilli, alterations in junctional claudins, and disruption of apical and basolateral trafficking; however, no microvillus inclusions were observed in MYO5B-KD cells. Expression of WT MYO5B in MYO5B-KD cells restored microvilli; however, expression of MYO5B-P660L, a MVID-associated mutation found within Navajo populations, did not rescue the MYO5B-KD phenotype but induced formation of microvillus inclusions. Microvilli establishment required interaction between RAB8A and MYO5B, while loss of the interaction between RAB11A and MYO5B induced microvillus inclusions. Using surface biotinylation and dual immunofluorescence staining in MYO5B-KD cells expressing mutant forms of MYO5B, we observed that early microvillus inclusions were positive for the sorting marker SNX18 and derived from apical membrane internalization. In patients with MVID, MYO5B-P660L results in global changes in polarity at the villus tips that could account for deficits in apical absorption, loss of microvilli, aberrant junctions, and losses in transcellular ion transport pathways, likely leading to the MVID clinical phenotype of neonatal secretory diarrhea.
Deficiency in diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT1) is a rare cause of neonatal diarrhea, without a known mechanism or in vitro model. A patient presenting at our institution at 7 weeks of life with failure to thrive and diarrhea was found by whole‐exome sequencing to have a homozygous DGAT1 truncation mutation. Duodenal biopsies showed loss of DGAT1 and deficits in apical membrane transporters and junctional proteins in enterocytes. When placed on a very low‐fat diet, the patient's diarrhea resolved with normalization of brush border transporter localization in endoscopic biopsies. DGAT1 knockdown in Caco2‐BBe cells modeled the deficits in apical trafficking, with loss of apical DPPIV and junctional occludin. Elevation in cellular lipid levels, including diacylglycerol (DAG) and phospholipid metabolites of DAG, was documented by lipid analysis in DGAT1 knockdown cells. Culture of the DGAT1 knockdown cells in lipid‐depleted media led to re‐establishment of occludin and return of apical DPPIV. DGAT1 loss appears to elicit global changes in enterocyte polarized trafficking that could account for deficits in absorption seen in the patient. The in vitro modeling of this disease should allow for investigation of possible therapeutic targets.
The Fc receptor FcRn traffics immunoglobulin G (IgG) in both directions across polarized epithelial cells that line mucosal surfaces, contributing to host defense. We show that FcRn traffics IgG from either apical or basolateral membranes into the recycling endosome (RE), after which the actin motor myosin Vb and the GTPase Rab25 regulate a sorting step that specifies transcytosis without affecting recycling. Another regulatory component of the RE, Rab11a, is dispensable for transcytosis, but regulates recycling to the basolateral membrane only. None of these proteins affect FcRn trafficking away from lysosomes. Thus, FcRn transcytotic and recycling sorting steps are distinct. These results are consistent with a single structurally and functionally heterogeneous RE compartment that traffics FcRn to both cell surfaces while discriminating between recycling and transcytosis pathways polarized in their direction of transport.
