L. Gottardi

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

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J. van der Kuur

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

M. P. Bruijn

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

H. Akamatsu

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

J. R. Gao

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

M. Ridder

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

E. Taralli

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

H. Hoevers

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

K. Nagayoshi

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

R. den Hartog

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

B. D. Jackson

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

Cooperative Institutions

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research

136

Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique

Goddard Space Flight Center

National Institute for Astrophysics

Centre National d'Études Spatiales

Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives

Delft University of Technology

Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie

Université Paris Cité

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Transition-Edge Sensors for Cryogenic X-ray Imaging Spectrometers

L. Gottardi S. J. Smith

Large arrays of superconducting transition-edge sensor (TES) microcalorimeters are becoming the key technology for future space-based X-ray observatories and ground-based experiments in the fields of astrophysics, laboratory astrophysics, plasma physics, particle physics and material analysis. Thanks to their sharp superconducting-to-normal transition, TESs can achieve very high sensitivity in detecting small temperature changes at very low temperature. TES based X-ray detectors are non-dispersive spectrometers bringing together high resolving power, imaging capability and high-quantum efficiency simultaneously. In this chapter, we highlight the basic principles behind the operation and design of TESs and their fundamental noise limits. We will further elaborate on the key fundamental physics processes that guide the design and optimization of the detector. We will then describe pulse-processing and important calibration considerations for space flight instruments, before introducing novel multi-pixel TES designs and discussing applications in future X-ray space missions over the coming decades.

Transition edge sensor

10.1007/978-981-19-6960-7_22

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System Performance of a TDM Test-Bed with Long Flex Harness Toward the New X-IFU FPA-DM

Journal of Low Temperature Physics (2024)

D. Vaccaro M. de Wit J. van der Kuur L. Gottardi K. Ravensberg

Cryostat

NIST

Time-division multiplexing

10.1007/s10909-024-03088-z

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Distributed TES Model for Designing Low Noise Bolometers Approaching SAFARI Instrument Requirements

Journal of Low Temperature Physics (2012)

P. Khosropanah R. A. Hijmering M. Ridder M. A. Lindeman L. Gottardi

Transition edge sensors (TES) are the chosen detector technology for the SAFARI imaging spectrometer on the SPICA telescope. The TES are required to have an NEP of $2\mbox{--}3\times 10^{-19}~\mbox{W/}\sqrt{\mathrm{Hz}}$ to take full advantage of the cooled mirror. SRON has developed TiAu TES bolometers for the short wavelength band (30–60 μm). The TES are on SiN membranes, in which long and narrow legs act as thermal links between the TES and the bath. We present a distributed model that accounts for the heat conductance and the heat capacity in the long legs that provides a guideline for designing low noise detectors. We report our latest results that include a measured dark NEP of $4.2\times 10^{-19}~\mbox{W/}\sqrt{\mathrm{Hz}}$ and a saturation power of about 10 fW.

Transition edge sensor

Noise-equivalent power

Spica

10.1007/s10909-012-0550-6

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LC Filters for FDM Readout of the X-IFU TES Calorimeter Instrument on Athena

Journal of Low Temperature Physics (2018)

M. P. Bruijn A. J. van der Linden L. Ferrari L. Gottardi J. van der Kuur

Calorimeter (particle physics)

Characterization

10.1007/s10909-018-1951-y

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Electrical Noise in a TES as a Resistively Shunted Conducting Junction

Journal of Low Temperature Physics (2012)

A. G. Kozorezov A. A. Golubov D. D. E. Martin P. A. J. de Korte M. A. Lindeman

Noise spectral density

10.1007/s10909-012-0489-7

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Citations (9)

High aspect ratio transition edge sensors for x-ray spectrometry

Journal of Applied Physics (2020)

M. de Wit L. Gottardi E. Taralli K. Nagayoshi M. Ridder

We are developing large Transition Edge Sensor (TES) arrays in combination with a frequency domain multiplexing readout for the next generation of X-ray space observatories. For operation under an AC-bias, the TESs have to be carefully designed and optimized. In particular, the use of high aspect ratio devices will help us to mitigate non-ideal behavior due to the weak-link effect. In this paper, we present a full characterization of a TES array containing five different device geometries, with aspect ratios (width:length) ranging from 1:2 up to 1:6. The complex impedance of all geometries is measured in different bias configurations to study the evolution of the small-signal limit superconducting transition parameters α and β, as well as the excess noise. We show that high aspect ratio devices with properly tuned critical temperatures (around 90 mK) can achieve excellent energy resolution, with an array average of 2.03±0.17 eV at 5.9 keV and a best achieved resolution of 1.63±0.17 eV. This demonstrates that AC-biased TESs can achieve a very competitive performance compared to DC-biased TESs. The results have motivated a push to even more extreme device geometries currently in development.

Ranging

Aspect ratio (aeronautics)

Transition edge sensor

10.1063/5.0029669

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Frequency shift algorithm: Application to a frequency-domain multiplexing readout of x-ray transition-edge sensor microcalorimeters

Review of Scientific Instruments (2021)

D. Vaccaro H. Akamatsu J. van der Kuur Paul van der Hulst A. C. T. Nieuwenhuizen

In the frequency-domain multiplexing (FDM) scheme, transition-edge sensors (TESs) are individually coupled to superconducting LC filters and AC biased at MHz frequencies through a common readout line. To make efficient use of the available readout bandwidth and to minimize the effect of non-linearities, the LC resonators are usually designed to be on a regular grid. The lithographic processes, however, pose a limit on the accuracy of the effective filter resonance frequencies. Off-resonance bias carriers could be used to suppress the impact of intermodulation distortions, which, nonetheless, would significantly affect the effective bias circuit and the detector spectral performance. In this paper, we present a frequency shift algorithm (FSA) to allow off-resonance readout of TESs, while preserving the on-resonance bias circuit and spectral performance, demonstrating its application to the FDM readout of an x-ray TES microcalorimeter array. We discuss the benefits in terms of mitigation of the impact of intermodulation distortions at the cost of increased bias voltage and the scalability of the algorithm to multi-pixel FDM readout. We show that with FSA, in the multi-pixel and frequencies shifted on-grid, the line noises due to intermodulation distortion are placed away from the sensitive region in the TES response and the x-ray performance is consistent with the single-pixel, on-resonance level.

Transition edge sensor

Biasing

10.1063/5.0032011

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Study of the Dependency on Magnetic Field and Bias Voltage of an AC-Biased TES Microcalorimeter

Journal of Low Temperature Physics (2012)

L. Gottardi J. S. Adams C. N. Bailey S. R. Bandler M. P. Bruijn

At SRON we are studying the performance of a Goddard Space Flight Center single pixel TES microcalorimeter operated in an AC bias configuration. For x-ray photons at 6 keV the pixel shows an x-ray energy resolution $dE_{FWHM} = 3.7\mathrm{eV}$, which is about a factor 2 worse than the energy resolution observed in an identical DC-biased pixel. In order to better understand the reasons for this discrepancy we characterised the detector as a function of temperature, bias working point and applied perpendicular magnetic field. A strong periodic dependency of the detector noise on the TES AC bias voltage is measured. We discuss the results in the framework of the recently observed weak-link behaviour of a TES microcalorimeter

Biasing

Photon energy

10.1007/s10909-012-0494-x

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Citations (17)

MiniGRAIL progress report 2004

Classical and Quantum Gravity (2005)

A. de Waard Y Benzaim G. Frossati L. Gottardi H van der Mark

The MiniGRAIL detector was improved. The sphere was replaced by a slightly larger one, having a diameter of 68 cm (instead of 65 cm), reducing the resonant frequency by about 200 Hz to around 2.9 kHz. The last four masses of the attenuation system were machined to increase their resonant frequency and improve the attenuation around the resonant frequency of the sphere. In the new sphere, six holes were machined on the TIGA positions for easy mounting of the transducers. During the last cryogenic run, two capacitive transducers and a calibrator were mounted on the sphere. The first transducer was coupled to a double-stage SQUID amplifier having a commercial quantum design SQUID as a first stage and a DROS as a second stage. The second transducer was read by a single-stage quantum design SQUID. During the cryogenic run, the sphere was cooled down to 4 K. The two-stage SQUID had a flux noise of about 1.6 μϕ0 Hz−1/2. The detector was calibrated and the sensitivity curve of MiniGRAIL was determined.

Integrating sphere

10.1088/0264-9381/22/10/012

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PRESENT STATUS OF MINIGRAIL

R. A. Ackermann Y Benzaim G. Frossati L. Gottardi A Karbalai-Sadegh

The latest results of the measurements on the vibration isolation system of MiniGRAIL at room temperature as well as an overview of the results of the ultra-cryogenic tests with the dilution refrigerator are presented. Two types of capacitive transducers have been developed and tested separately in a cryogenic set-up. The rosette-design transducers have been mounted on the sphere and tested at low temperature. We also report the progress in developing a two-mode inductive transducer with an Al5056 resonator as a second resonating mass and a Nb film coil as superconducting pick-up loop. Furthermore, we developed and tested two double-SQUID systems based on two types of dc SQUIDs as sensors and a DROS as the preamplifier stage.

Preamplifier

Cryogenics

Cryostat

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Citations (2)