Early initiation of sexual activity is associated with having more sexual partners, not using condoms, sexually transmitted infection (STI), and pregnancy during adolescence (1,2). The majority of adolescents initiate sexual activity during high school, and the proportion of high school students who have ever had sexual intercourse increases by grade; black students are more likely to have ever had sexual intercourse than are white students (3). The proportion of high school students overall who had ever had sexual intercourse did not change significantly during 1995-2005 (53.1% to 46.8%) (Division of Adolescent and School Health, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, CDC, unpublished data). To assess whether changes have occurred in recent years in the proportion of high school students who have ever had sexual intercourse, CDC examined trends overall and by grade, race/ethnicity, and sex among U.S. high school students, using data from the 2005-2015 national Youth Risk Behavior Surveys (YRBSs) and data from 29 states* that conduct the YRBS and have weighted data. Nationwide, the proportion of high school students who had ever had sexual intercourse decreased significantly overall and among 9th and 10th grade students, non-Hispanic black (black) students in all grades, and Hispanic students in three grades. A similar pattern by grade was observed in nearly half the states (14), where the prevalence of ever having had sexual intercourse decreased only in 9th grade or only in 9th and 10th grades; nearly all other states saw decreases in some or all grades. The overall decrease in the prevalence of ever having had sexual intercourse during 2005-2015 is a positive change in sexual risk among adolescents (i.e., behaviors that place them at risk for human immunodeficiency virus, STI, or pregnancy) in the United States, an overall decrease that did not occur during the preceding 10 years. Further, decreases by grade and race/ethnicity represent positive changes among groups of students who have been determined in previous studies to be at higher risk for negative outcomes associated with early sexual initiation, such as greater numbers of partners, condom non-use, teen pregnancy, and STI (1-3). More work is needed to understand the reasons for these decreases and to ensure that they continue.
Transgender youths (those whose gender identity* does not align with their sex†) experience disparities in violence victimization, substance use, suicide risk, and sexual risk compared with their cisgender peers (those whose gender identity does align with their sex) (1-3). Yet few large-scale assessments of these disparities among high school students exist. The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) is conducted biennially among local, state, and nationally representative samples of U.S. high school students in grades 9-12. In 2017, 10 states (Colorado, Delaware, Hawaii, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Rhode Island, Vermont, Wisconsin) and nine large urban school districts (Boston, Broward County, Cleveland, Detroit, District of Columbia, Los Angeles, New York City, San Diego, San Francisco) piloted a measure of transgender identity. Using pooled data from these 19 sites, the prevalence of transgender identity was assessed, and relationships between transgender identity and violence victimization, substance use, suicide risk, and sexual risk behaviors were evaluated using logistic regression. Compared with cisgender males and cisgender females, transgender students were more likely to report violence victimization, substance use, and suicide risk, and, although more likely to report some sexual risk behaviors, were also more likely to be tested for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. These findings indicate a need for intervention efforts to improve health outcomes among transgender youths.
During the long twelfth century (ca.1070-ca.1240) medieval society was undergoing a dramatic transformation. Power structures were becoming centralised, bureaucratic and hegemonic, to the exclusion of smaller communities and regional variations. The most important and long-lasting effect of the long twelfth century was the renewed power of the written word. During the long twelfth century, the written word afforded elites the power to coerce and subjugate people in a manner that had previously been denied to them. No better example of this new bureaucratic and authoritative legal construction exists than the Inquisition. The Inquisition, as an institution, relied on the production of written documents, to enforce a legislated conception of what the Catholic community should be. In essence, the contestation of religious practice between orthodoxy and heresy, during the thirteenth century, represents a microcosm of the long twelfth century. The enforcement of a homogenous practice at the behest of elites via bureaucratic means. It is into this narrative of heresy and repression that this thesis inserts itself, trying to shade out a subtler picture of inquisitorial development during the early thirteenth century.
This thesis outlines two new elements to our understanding of inquisitorial persecution. Firstly, that the persecution witnessed during the high middle ages conformed to a model of human behaviour, labelled as the behavioural immune system, whose structures and actions highlight a continuity of persecution dating from our shared evolutionary roots. Secondly, that the transformation of the process of inquisitio (the legal mechanism of trial without a named accuser) into Inquisition was centred upon individual criminal culpability and recognition of that within a stringent legal process, which was ultimately a product of Roman jurisprudence within canon law.
Chapter one, ‘Disgusting persecution,’ outlines behavioural immune theory and demonstrates how its features conform to reports of persecution during the high middle ages. Special attention is given to Popes Innocent III and Gregory IX because these men were most influential in shaping the early form of inquisitio, especially its use as an anti-heretical tool. Chapter two, ‘Literate Authority,’ examines the rise of Roman jurisprudence in canon law, with particular reference to the (re)discovery of Justinian’s Digest and the formulation of Gratian’s Decretum. It argues that this Romanising influence led ultimately to the rejection of ordeal at the Fourth Lateran (1215), which in turn necessitated the increased use of inquisitio. Chapter three, ‘Corporate theory,’ examines the growing debate amongst canonists towards the end of Innocent III’s pontificate, concerning the appropriateness of corporate liability and punishment, a tension that was finally resolved by accepting that the rights of the criminally culpable individual must be respected in criminal proceedings. Chapter four, ‘Regional Councils,’ contrasts the early process of inquisitio used by Conrad of Marburg and Robert le Bougre to that established by the regional councils of the mid-thirteenth century, especially Tarragona (1242) and Narbonne (1243). It argues that these regional councils formulated a procedure centred upon recognising individual criminal culpability, through both individual trials and punishment. Chapter five, ‘Inquisition in practice,’ examines inquisitorial records in an effort to demonstrate the evolving nature of the process of inquisitio as it transformed itself into Inquisition. The argument is made that the formulation of Inquisition, represents an accepted level of legislative persecution, conforming to the precepts of behavioural immune theory, which in turn was constrained by the emerging canonical consensus of induvial criminal culpability.
This thesis concludes that the usual story of Inquisitorial development stemming from heresy and repression in the Languedoc can be significantly enhanced through an exploration of individual criminal culpability. The combination of canon law and behavioural immune theory-led analysis has tried to reposition our understanding of the emerging inquisitorial process, not simply as a repressive tool of new bureaucrats or their elite masters. The Inquisition contained elements of legislative persecution juxtaposed to highly sophisticated procedural steps outlined to afford for defendant the right to a trial.
Objective: To estimate trends in the proportion of sexually active U.S. adults with HIV (PWH) reporting an HIV-discordant sexual partner taking preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and proportion of partners taking PrEP. Design: The Medical Monitoring Project is a complex sample survey of U.S. adults with diagnosed HIV. Methods: We used annual cross-sectional data collected during June 2015–May 2020 to estimate the annual percentage change (EAPC), overall and by selected characteristics, in reported partner PrEP use among PWH with HIV-discordant partners ( N = 8707) and reported PrEP use among these partners ( N = 15 844). Results: The proportion of PWH reporting PrEP use by one or more HIV-discordant sex partner rose 19.5% annually (11.3 to 24.4%). The prevalence rose from 6.0 to 17.4% (EAPC, 25.8%) among Black PWH, 10.1 to 26.0% (EAPC, 19.5%) among Hispanic/Latino PWH, and 20.8 to 34.6% (EAPC, 16.3%) among White PWH. Among MSM with HIV, the prevalence increased from 9.6 to 32.6% (EAPC, 28.2%) among Black MSM, 16.6 to 36.0% (EAPC, 15.6%) among Hispanic/Latino MSM, and 24.9 to 44.1% (EAPC, 17.9%) among White MSM. Among HIV-discordant sex partners, the proportion reported to be taking PrEP increased 21.1% annually (7.8 to 18.8%). Reported PrEP use rose from 4.9 to 14.2% (EAPC, 29.9%) among Black partners, 6.5 to 16.8% (EAPC, 20.3%) among Hispanic/Latino partners, and 12.7 to 26.1% (EAPC, 17.0%) among White partners. Conclusions: One in five HIV-discordant sexual partners of PWH was reported to be taking PrEP. PrEP use rose among all examined populations, although the increases did not eliminate disparities in PrEP use.
Creating a revised plan requires experience and significant time. To lessen the effort involved, a knowledge-based system named SCHEREC (SCHedule RECovery) was developed which suggests decisions which should be considered for schedule recovery actions. In order to yield a solution for delay recovery, SCHEREC may borrow resources from one activity (slowing down that activity) and lend them to another activity (speeding up this activity). Also, it suggest hiring new workers to speed up a given activity, or advises the user to put a certain trade on overtime for a period of time. It checks if the delay can be recovered, or if the cost of the changes in the schedule can be offset by any loss for not completing the project on time. SCHEREC helps meet contract time commitments and makes it easy to avoid ineffective actions.
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