Scythians were nomadic and semi-nomadic people that ruled the Eurasian steppe during much of the first millennium BCE. While having been extensively studied by archaeology, very little is known about their genetic identity. To fill this gap, we analyzed ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from Scythians of the North Pontic Region (NPR) and successfully retrieved 19 whole mtDNA genomes. We have identified three potential mtDNA lineage ancestries of the NPR Scythians tracing back to hunter-gatherer and nomadic populations of east and west Eurasia as well as the Neolithic farming expansion into Europe. One third of all mt lineages in our dataset belonged to subdivisions of mt haplogroup U5. A comparison of NPR Scythian mtDNA linages with other contemporaneous Scythian groups, the Saka and the Pazyryks, reveals a common mtDNA package comprised of haplogroups H/H5, U5a, A, D/D4, and F1/F2. Of these, west Eurasian lineages show a downward cline in the west-east direction while east Eurasian haplogroups display the opposite trajectory. An overall similarity in mtDNA lineages of the NPR Scythians was found with the late Bronze Age Srubnaya population of the Northern Black Sea region which supports the archaeological hypothesis suggesting Srubnaya people as ancestors of the NPR Scythians.
The authors attempted to determine the tendencies in the development of long bones (femur and tibia) in the Bronze Era and Iron Age agricultural and pastoral populations (differing with adaptive strategies used) from Ukraine. A total of 79 skeletons of individuals who had died at the age of 1 to 13 years were examined. This number included 55 skeletons from the Bronze Era (15 individuals from the population of farmers, and 40 individuals from the population of herders) and 24 skeletons from the Iron Age (12 farmers and 12 herders). The results of the research indicate that subadults in pastoral populations were taller than subadults in agricultural populations. This could have resulted in their greater body height in adulthood as well as in different body proportions (herders had relatively long tibia and higher stature, while farmers had relatively short tibia and smaller body height).
While numerous ancient human DNA datasets from across Europe have been published till date, modern-day Poland in particular, remains uninvestigated. Besides application in the reconstruction of continent-wide human history, data from this region would also contribute towards our understanding of the history of the Slavs, whose origin is hypothesized to be in East or Central Europe. Here, we present the first population-scale ancient human DNA study from the region of modern-day Poland by establishing mitochondrial DNA profiles for 23 samples dated to 200 BC - 500 AD (Roman Iron Age) and for 20 samples dated to 1000-1400 AD (Medieval Age). Our results show that mitochondrial DNA sequences from both periods belong to haplogroups that are characteristic of contemporary West Eurasia. Haplotype sharing analysis indicates that majority of the ancient haplotypes are widespread in some modern Europeans, including Poles. Notably, the Roman Iron Age samples share more rare haplotypes with Central and Northeast Europeans, whereas the Medieval Age samples share more rare haplotypes with East-Central and South-East Europeans, primarily Slavic populations. Our data demonstrates genetic continuity of certain matrilineages (H5a1 and N1a1a2) in the area of present-day Poland from at least the Roman Iron Age until present. As such, the maternal gene pool of present-day Poles, Czechs and Slovaks, categorized as Western Slavs, is likely to have descended from inhabitants of East-Central Europe during the Roman Iron Age.
The problem of human diversity in time and space has engaged the interest of many anthropologists, and nowadays it is still interesting, especially due to the difficulties in interpreting relations between human groups. In such a situation, the present paper constitutes a contribution to the discussion on methods of studying human group diversity and the processes of the origin, development, and breakdown of human groups (ethnogenesis). This paper is divided into three main chapters. In the first one, a general outline of the methods hitherto used in studies on ethnogenesis is recalled. The typological conception of race is briefly characterized [Czekanowski 1930, 1948, 1962; Bielicki 1961, 1962; Wierciński 1962], as well as the population one [Mayr 1974; Garlick 1978] and the biocultural one [Wierciński 1978; Strzałko et al. 1975, 1978, 1980]. In this latter one, the role of cultural factors in the variability of human groups is stressed. This fact was many times proved but not unequivocally [Hiernaux 1956; Politzer 1958; Hanna 1962; McHenry, Giles 1971; Friedlander et al. 1971; Parsons 1973; Spuhler 1972; Saltzano et al. 1977; El-Najjar 1978]. Agreement or disagreement of biological and cultural ranges of information is difficult for interpretation, especially that human groups are not easily distinguishable units and generally, they are defined on the base of certain discriminants that indicate adoption of a positivistic notion of culture. The situation when any biological diversity does not correspond with cultural one, as well as ethnogenetic processes, is difficult to interpretation. Thus, the authors present their own opinion on processes of human groups diversity, emphasizing that biological differentiation of human groups takes place in two mutually exclusive ways: either they lead to disintegration of ethnocultural systems and the emergence of "descendant ethnoses" or to integration of ethnocultural systems by means of adjustments between their cultural and biological information, as shown in figure 1. Since the authors have found these two processes responsible for changes of human groups, they are of the opinion that the correct interpretation of biological relations among groups is only possible when the character of processes in ethnocultural systems may be estimated (e.g., either disintegration or integration) and the role of biological and cultural factors that triggered off and realized given alternative processes can be described. Similar opinions were presented in previous authors papers [Piontek, Kaczmarek 1980; Czerniak, Piontek 1980; Piontek 1981]. Theoretically, the third situation may be discussed when a stationary model of the ethnocultural system is realized, however, its interpretation is not disputable, and so it is not considered here. In the second chapter, the authors discuss the problem of the so-called biological distance—a measure that has been used, regardless of methodological conceptions of human race, for the description and interpretation of human variability. The notion of it given by Czekanowski [1909] and Constandse-Westerman [1972] is mentioned here, especially for expressing the authors attitude towards this procedure. Authors, in contrast to some other anthropologists [Cain, Harrison 1958; Karve, Malhotra 1968; Malyutov et al. 1972], state that biological distance should be treated only as statistical information on human variability. The interpretation of this measure must be referred to modeling and systemic formulas based on theoretical knowledge. Such a statement is found important since ethnogenetic investigations in European groups have been based on comparative studies [Rossing, Schwidetzky 1975]. In the third chapter, for supporting the previously given point of view, three examples of three different situations are given: when the defined territory is inhabited by a poliethnic society of high cultural development, when different territories are inhabited by groups belonging to the same ethnocultural system, when large cultural differentiation of following groups is observed but at the same time, they are biologically similar to each other. The material presented as the first example is taken from Bozic’s article [1979]. Penrose’s distances among contemporary ethnic groups from Vojvodina, Yugoslavia are insignificant (table 1). It means that criteria for distinguishing ethnic groups may not allow ordering of biological variability. The examined population is mendelian one with high intragroup variability (the coefficient of variation is rather high and do not differ considerably among groups) although culturally it may be divided into several subgroups. However lack of biological differences among them is understandable when adaptive character of culture is taken into account for distinguishing groups (e.g. the level of socio-economical development). The second example presents biological distances between Middle Ages Slavic groups from Europe [Rössing and Shwidetzky 1975] expressed in terms of Penrose's distances. Differences between various groups are often significant. Since all presented here human series belong to one common ethnic group the interpretation of this result is difficult. (table 2). The third situation presents comparative data for human groups from Neolithic and Early Bronze periods from certain territories of Central Europe [Bach 1972, Wierciński 1973] (table 3). Penrose's distances computed for these groups are insignificant except for representatives of Bell Beaker Culture. Detailed characteristic of all these archaeological cultures [Hensel, Tabaczyński 1978:136, 139] supports an expectation about so-called “continuous” model of cultural changes between groups and biological difference between Bell Beaker Culture and other is also archeologically prooved [Wiślański 1978]. Three situations referenced here illustrate authors” opinion on the methodology in studies on human groups genesis. As it was stressed adaptive character of culture and detailed description of both biological and cultural factors responsible for human diversity must be adopted in ethnic studies. In final remarks authors emphasized the need for further modelling and systemic formulas in ethnogenesis as well as detailed methodological and methodical directions of description, classification and interpretation of biocultural information with specially stressed definitions of supra-time variables describing cultural changes in human groups.
According to medical knowledge, physical activity plays a role in osteoarthritic changes formation. The impact of occupation on osteoarthritic changes development in past human populations is not clear enough, causing problems with interpretation. The aim of the current study is to examine the relationship between osteoarthritis and entheseal changes. Skeletal material comes from the late medieval, early modern population from Łekno (Poland). The sample consists of 110 males and 56 females (adults only). Osteophytes, porosity and eburnation were analyzed in the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle. Entheses on the humerus, radius, femur, and tibia were examined. Standard ranked categorical scoring systems were used for the osteoarthritic and entheseal changes examination. Males with more developed osteophytes in the shoulder have more “muscular” upper limbs (higher values of muscle markers). Males with more developed osteophytes in the hip and knee are predicted to have more “muscular” lower limbs. Males with more developed osteoarthritis in the shoulder, wrist, hip, and knee exhibit more developed entheseal changes. Males with more developed entheses tend to yield more developed osteophytes (all joints taken together) and general osteoarthritis (all changes and all joints taken together). Females with more developed entheses have more developed osteoarthritis in the elbow, wrist, and hip. Individuals with more developed entheses have much more developed osteophytes. When all the three types of changes are taken together, more “muscular” females exhibit more developed osteoarthritis. The lack of uniformity of the results, wild discussions on the usage of entheses in activity patterns reconstruction and other limitations do not allow to draw unambiguous conclusions about the impact of physical activity on the osteoarthritis in past populations and further studies are needed.
In culturological studies a return of evolutionary idea may be observed. New concepts of cultural ecology conceive the process of cultural transformations as a sequence of changes displaying adaptive character, This approach assumes that factors of biological and of cultural development operate in mutual interrelation forming general pattern of biocultural evolution. Precise ascertainment of respective influence of biological and of cultural factors requires such a simplification of a subject of studies that ensures their effective distinction. In order to study biological changes physical anthropology has elaborated a number of methods: for either reconstitution or description of individual and populational characteristics. These are the variables describing basic biological properties of populations in a uniform way irrespective of territory, time period and cultural system to which a given human group is related. Cultural characteristics that can be reconstituted for prehistoric populations on grounds of archaeological investigations usually are not of such a universal nature. Archeology almost always uses characteristics describing properties of a given, concrete cultural system. This situation prevents performance of analyses of evolutionary kind. One of the measures of the biocultural evolution may be a characteristics of exploitative efficiency (K) that could be described on grounds of information upon nutritional capacity of environment (S), habitat capacity (P), human group size (L) and size of the habitat economically exploited by a human group (microregion) — M. Exploitative efficiency of a group (K) may be expressed by actual population density of people representing a given cultural system in a given period and within defined natural environment. Habitat capacity (P) informs in turn about maximum (relative to ecological equilibrium) attainable population density that a population of a given exploitative efficiency can reach under given environmental conditions. Knowledge upon relations. between variables K and P is necessary for reconstitution of internal behavior of cultural systems i.e. in order to explain ecological content of transformations of cultural systems. Yet for more general investigations (ones concerning intergroup relations) it is sufficient to know solely values of exploitative efficiency. This seems to be easily attinable in studies on prehistoric populations. A clue problem in the type of studies dealth with here is distinction of a microregion constituting the main cultural variable. Therefore in the paper are described problems concerning rules for transformation of archaeological data (so called archaeometic data) into historical ones (cultural variables) directly useful for calculations of population density in settlement microregionis.
